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MBk  W Dims®, 

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7 


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8 


A MANUAL 


/ 


GRECIAN  AND  ROMAN 
ANTIQUITIES, 


BY 

DR.  E.  F.  BOJESEN, 

PROFESSOR  OF  THE  GREEK  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 
IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  SORO. 


C 

TRANSLATED  FROM  THE  GERMAN. 


StittcR 

(with  occasional  notes,  and  a complete  series  of  questions) 

BY  THE 

REV.  THOMAS  KERCHEVER  ARNOLD,  M.A., 

RECTOR  OF  LYNDON, 

AND  LATE  FELLOW  OF  TRINITY  COLLEGE,  CAMBRIDGE. 

REVISED,  WITH  ADDITIONS  AND  CORRECTIONS. 
FOURTH  EDITION. 

NEW- YORK : 

D.  APPLETON  & CO.,  346  & 348  BROADWAY. 


M.DCCO.IIV. 


J 

Entered,  according  to  Act.  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1848, 


By  D.  APPLETON  & CO., 

In  the  Clerk’s  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Southern  District  of  New-York. 


U D a*. 


A MANUAL 


OF 

GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES, 


BY 


DR.  E.  F.  BOJESEN, 

PROFESSOR  OF  THE  GREEK  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 
IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  SORO. 


TRANSLATED  FROM  THE  GERMAN. 


Suite*  CL 

(with  occasional  notes,  and  a complete  series  of  questions) 

BY  THE 

REV.  THOMAS  KERCHEVER  ARNOLD,  M.A., 

RECTOR  OF  LYNDON, 

AND  LATE  FELLOW  OF  TRINITY  COLLEGE,  CAMBRIDGE. 

1005 

REVISED,  WITH  ADDITIONS  AND  CORRECTIONS. 
FOURTH  EDITION. 


NEW-YORK: 

D.  APPLETON  & CO.,  346  & 348  BROADWAY. 

M.DOOO.LIV. 


I 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1848, 

By  D.  APPLETON  & CO., 

I*  the  Clerk’s  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Southern  District  of  New- York. 


?• 

13c 


, 


, 


PREFACE  TO  THE  AMERICAN  EDITION. 


The  present  Manuals  of  Greek  and  Roman  An 
tiquities  are  so  far  superior  to  any  thing  on  the  same 
topics  as  yet  offered  to  the  American  public,  that  it  is 
superfluous  to  add  to  the  commendation  bestowed  on 
them  in  Mr.  Arnold’s  preface.  All  that  has  been 
attempted  in  the  Edition  now  presented  to  the  public 
has  been,  to  revise  carefully  throughout  the  volumes 
of  Dr.  Bojesen ; to  add  explanatory  notes,  where  they 
seemed  to  be  needed ; to  amplify  occasionally  some 
paragraphs  and  sentences  which  appeared  obscure 
from  the  studied  brevity  which  the  author  has  every 
where  observed  ; to  give  references  to  standard  English 
works  in  history  and  antiquities ; and  to  endeavour  in 
every  way  to  render  the  works  perfect  in  their  adapta- 
tion to  the  wants  of  American  Schools  and  Colleges 
It  is  confidently  hoped  and  expected  that  an  impartial 
examination  will  establish  their  claim  to  favour  and 
adoption.  J.  A.  S. 

New-Yokk,  May  1,  1848. 


10  0 5 


- 


PREFACE. 


When  I first  became  acquainted  with  Dr.  Bojesen’s  Manuals  of 
Grecian  and  Roman  Antiquities,  they  appeared  to  me  admirably 
suited  for  their  purpose ; and  my  opinion  was  confirmed  a few 
months  ago  by  the  terms  of  high  praise  which  one  of  them  has 
received  in  a principal  Review  of  Germany.  The  reviewer,  Dr. 
Osenbruggen,  himself  the  author  of  a treatise  de  Jure  Belli  et  Pads, 
says  of  the  Roman  Manual : “ Small  as  the  compass  of  it  is,  we 
may  confidently  affirm  that  it  is  a great  improvement  (on  all  pre- 
ceding works  of  the  kind). — We  no  longer  meet  with  the  wretched 
old  method,  in  which  subjects  essentially  distinct  are  heaped  together, 
and  connected  subjects  disconnected,  but  have  a simple,  systematic 
arrangement,  by  which  the  reader  easily  receives  a clear  representa- 
tion of  Roman  life.  We  no  longer  stumble  against  countless  errors 
in  detail,  which,  though  long  ago  assailed  and  extirpated  by  Niebuhr 
and  others,  have  found  their  last  place  of  refuge  in  our  Manuals. 
The  recent  investigation  of  philologists  and  jurists  have  been  exten- 
sively, but  carefully  and  circumspectly  used.  The  conciseness  and 
precision  which  the  author  has  every  where  prescribed  to  himself, 
prevents  the  superficial  observer  from  perceiving  the  essential  supe- 
riority of  the  book  to  its  predecessors,  but  whoever  subjects  it  to  a 
careful  examination  will  discover  this  on  every  page.  As  an  in- 
stance of  the  compiler’s  careful  study  of  particular  points,  we  would 
mention  the  sections  on  haw  and  Judicial  affairs,  which  are  here 
more  fully  treated  than  in  any  other  Manual,  and  have  assumed  an 
entirely  new  form.  For  the  subject  of  Roman  finances,  he  had  nc 
new  investigations  to  avail  himself  of,  and  this  portion  of  the  work 
is  consequently  less  complete.  In  Creuzer's  Sketch,  the  subject  of 
Finances  is  entirely  passed  over,  and  that  of  the  Judicial  proceedings, 
if  not  quite  omitted,  yet  receives  but  a few  occasional  notices.”  1 


1 Zeitschrift  fiir  Alterthiimswissenschaft,  vol.  for  1842,  p.  914. 


VI 


PREFACE. 


The  mere  fact  that  both  works  have  been  translated  into  German 
(by  Dr.  Hoff  a of  Marburg ),  and  ,are  extensively  used  in  that  coun- 
try, is  itself  a proof  that  they  are  of  no  common  value.  In  England 
we  have,  indeed,  in  Dr.  Smith’s  Abridgment  of  the  excellent  “ Dic- 
tionary of  Antiquities,”  a sound  and  good  work ; but  I object  alto- 
gether to  the  form  of  a Dictionary  for  any  subject  of  which  the  parts 
ought  to  be  studied  in  succession. — I fully  believe  that  the  pupil  will 
receive  from  these  little  works  a correct  and  tolerably  complete  pic- 
ture of  Grecian  and  Roman  life  ; what  I may  call  the  political  por- 
tions— the  account  of  the  national  constitutions  and  their  effects — 
appear  to  me  to  be  of  great  value ; and  the  very  moderate  extent  of 
each  volume  admits  of  its  being  thoroughly  mastered — of  its  being 
got  up  and  retained.  For  the  translation  (which  has  been  made  from 
the  German  version  of  Dr.  Hoffa),  I have  to  thank  the  Rev.  R.  B. 
Paul,  late  Fellow  of  Exeter  College,  Oxford ; the  author  of  a more 
extensive  work  upon  “ Grecian  Antiquities ,”  and  of  a “ History  of 
Germany,  on  the  plan  of  Mrs.  Markham’s  Histories .” 


Lyndon,  October  23,  1847. 


T.  K.  A. 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION. 

PAGE 

Authorities 15 


GEOGRAPHY. 

§1.  Boundaries  and  divisions  of  the  country  . . . 16 

2.  Natural  character  of  the  country  and  its  influence  on  the 

people 17 


HISTORY. 

§1.  The  Grecian  tribes  .......  17 

2.  Migration  of  the  tribes 19 

(3.  Development  of  political  institutions.  Decline  and  fall  of 

Monarchy  ........  20 

4.  The  Aristocracy  21 

5.  Development  of  the  Democracy. — Struggle  of  parties  . 22 

6.  The  same  subject  continued  .....  **  23 

7.  Decline  and  fall  of  the  Grecian  states  ....  24 

8.  General  form  of  the  constitution  in  the  free  states  of 

Greece  ..........  ib. 

9.  Ionic  and  Doric  states,  particularly  Athens  and  Sparta  . 25 

10.  Points  of  union  for  the  whole  of  Greece.  Festivals  and 

Oracles 26 

11.  Points  of  union  for  particular  portions  of  Greece.  The  Am- 

phictyons,  local  confederations,  Symmachia,  Hegemonia  27 

12.  Colonies  28 


THE  HEROIC  AGE. 

§ 1 . Meaning  of  the  term  ...  . , . 28 

2.  Civilization  . 29 


Vlll 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

§3.  The  State,  and  its  constitution  in  general  ...  30 

4.  The  King  .....  . 31 

5.  The  Aristocracy  ........  32 

6.  The  People 33 

7.  Administration  of  Justice 34 

8.  Religion  .........  ib. 

9.  Temples — Priests  and  Prophets — Oracles  ...  35 

10.  War.  Offensive  and  defensive  arms  ....  36 

11.  The  battle  .........  37 

12.  Camps — Sieges  .......  38 

13.  Navigation — Ships  .......  ib. 

14.  Domestic  life  of  the  Greeks. — Means  of  support. — Employ- 

ment .........  39 

15.  Arts — Commerce  .......  40 

16.  Domestic  affairs — Marriage — Education  ....  41 

17.  Diet  . 42 

18.  Dress  ..........  43 

19.  Houses  .........  44 

20.  Furniture  .........  ib. 


SPARTA. 

CHOROGRAPHY. 

§1.  The  Country  ........  45 

2.  The  Capital ib. 

HISTORICAL  OUTLINE. 

§1.  Ancient  history  ........  46 

2.  Administration  of  Lycurgus  .....  47 

3.  The  rise  of  Lacedaemon — Hegemonia  ....  ib. 

4.  Decline  of  Lacedaemon  ......  48 

5.  Fall  of  the  Spartan  Commonwealth  ....  49 

INHABITANTS  OF  LACEDAEMON. 

§1.  Spartans  .........  50 

2.  Free  inhabitants,  who  were  excluded  by  birth  from  the 

rights  of  citizenship  . . . . . . 51 

3.  Helots  .........  52 

4.  Condition  of  the  Helots  ......  ib. 

5.  Partition  of  the  land  among  the  free  inhabitants  . 53 

6.  Consequences  of  the  gradual  decrease  in  the  number  of 

citizens,  and  the  inequality  of  property  ...  54 

THE  GOVERNMENT. 

§1.  Partition  of  the  Government  .....  55 

2.  The  Senate  (or  Council)  . ...  56 


CONTENTS. 


IX 


PAGE 


§3.  The  Popular  Assembly  ....  56 

4.  Magistrates — The  Kings  57 

5.  The  Ephori  ........  58 

6.  Other  public  officers  ......  59 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT. 

1.  Its  object 60 

A..  ADMINISTRATION  OF  JUSTICE. 

§2.  Judicial  Authority  .......  60 

3.  Punishments 61 


B.  RELIGION. 

§4.  Gods  of  the  Spartans  . . ....  61 

5.  National  Festivals  .......  ib. 

C.  MILITARY  AFFAIRS. 

§6.  The  Army — Weapons  of  the  Soldiers  ....  62 

7.  Arrangement  and  divisions  of  the  Army  . . ib. 

8.  Officers  .........  63 

9.  War.  Battles  .......  64 

10.  Naval  affairs ib. 


D.  POLITICAL  ECONOMY. 

§11.  Income  and  Expenditure — Money  ....  65 

E.  OTHER  PUBLIC  INSTITUTIONS. 

§ 12.  General  remarks  66 

13.  Marriage  ......  . ib. 

14.  Public  education  of  Boys 67 

15.  Education  with  reference  to  the  Body  ...  ib. 

16.  Education  with  reference  to  the  Mind  ...  68 

17.  Education  of  Girls 69 

18.  Men — their  mode  of  life  ......  ib 

19.  Other  modes  of  sustaining  the  ancient  discipline  . 70 

20.  Relaxation  of  discipline ib. 


APPENDIX. 

CRETE. 

§1.  Historical  sketch  of  the  Country 71 

2.  The  Constitution  .......  72 

3.  Discipline  and  mode  of  life  ......  ib. 


X 


CONTENTS. 


ATHENS. 


CHOROGRAPHY. 

§ 1.  The  Country 
8.  The  Capital 


PAGE 

73 

74 


HISTORICAL  OUTLINE. 


§1.  Ancient  history  of  the  country.  The  Monarchy  tnd 

Aristocracy  .....  . . 75 

2.  The  subject  continued  ......  76 

3.  Legislation  of  Draco  ......  77 

4.  Solon’s  constitution  ......  ib 

5.  Increase  of  popular  influence  .....  76 

6.  Decline  of  the  constitution  .....  73 

7.  The  subject  continued  ......  ib. 


INHABITANTS  OF  THE  STATE,  AND  THEIR  CLASSIFICATION. 


§ 1.  Citizens  by  birth  .......  8C 

2.  Persons  admitted  into  the  rank  of  citizens  . . 81 

3.  Metceci  .........  82 

4.  Slaves  .........  83 

5.  Phylae  and  Demi  .......  84 

6.  Administration  of  these  communities  ...  85 

7.  Phratriae  and  Gene  .......  ib. 

8.  Trityes  and  Naucrariae 86 

A.  THE  POPULAR  ASSEMBLY. 

§1.  Number,  place,  and  mode  of  sommoning  ...  86 

2.  Proceedings  at  these  assemblies  ....  87 

3.  The  subject  continued  ......  88 

4.  Subjects  of  deliberation  ......  ib. 

5.  Legislative  authority  of  the  Assembly  (Ecclesia)  . 89 

6.  The  subject  continued  ......  90 

7.  Judicial  authority  of  the  Assembly  ....  ib. 

8.  Ostracism  ........  91 


B.  THE  SENATE  OR  COUNCIL. 


§ 9.  Qualification  of  Members.  Privileges  ...  92 

10.  Duties  of  the  Senate  ......  93 

11.  Manner  of  assembling  ......  94 

C.  THE  MAGISTRATES. 

§ 12.  Different  Classess  of  Public  Functionaries  ...  95 

13.  The  Proof  of  Qualification  .....  ib. 

14.  Responsibility  of  Magistrates  .....  96 


CONTENTS. 

Xi 

§ 15.  Limits  of  their  power 

16.  The  Archons  .... 

17.  Various  Police  Functionaries 

18.  Extraordinary  Functionaries 

19.  Public  Servants  .... 

. 

PAGE 

97 
ib. 

98 

99 
ib. 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT. 

A.  ADMINISTRATION  OF  JUSTICE. 

§1.  Sources  of  our  information  respecting  the  Attic  Juris- 
prudence ........ 


99 


LAWS  RELATING  TO  PRIVATE  PERSONS. 


§2.  Marriage  ...... 

3.  Parental  Authority.  Adoption.  Guardianship 

4.  Right  of  Inheritance,  and  of  making  a Will 

5.  Laws  relating  to  Obligations  and  Securities 


100 

101 

102 

103 


JUDGES  AND  COURTS  OF  JUSTICE. 

§ 6.  Historical  account  of  the  Courts  of  Justice 

7.  The  Heliasts  ...... 

8.  The  Diaetetse.  The  Forty  .... 

9.  The  Court  of  the  Areopagites 

10.  Court  of  the  Ephetae  ..... 

11.  Magistrates  with  Judicial  Hegemonia 

12.  Accusations. — Qualifications  of  Plaintiffs  . 

13.  Public  and  Private  Actions  .... 

14.  Various  Forms  of  Public  Process 

15.  Public  Prosecutions  considered  with  reference  to 

subject  of  Complaint  ..... 

16.  Private  Actions  . . . . . . . 


the 


17.  Private  Actions  considered  with  reference  to  the  sub 
ject 


104 
ib. 

105 

106 

107 
ib. 

108 
ib. 
ib. 

109 

ib. 

ib. 


LEGAL  PROCEEDINGS. 


§18.  Legal  Proceedings 110 

19.  The  same  subject  continued. — Preparatory  Pleadings 

before  the  Magistrates  ......  ib. 

20.  Proceedings  before  the  Court  ....  Ill 

21.  Form  of  Process  in  Trials  for  Murder  . . . 112 

22.  The  subject  continued  ......  113 

23.  Judgment. — Means  of  enforcing  penalties  . . ib. 

24.  Appeals  ........  114 

25.  Punishments ib. 

26.  Atimia  ........  ib. 

27.  Other  kinds  of  Punishment 115 

28.  Falling  off  in  the  Administration  of  Justice  . . 116 


Xll  CONTENTS- 

B.  RELIGION. 

§29.  The  Gods.  Temples  ... 

30.  Festivals.  The  Panathensea  and  Dionysia 

31.  Thesmophoria,  Eleusinia,  and  other  inferior  Festi- 

vals   

32.  Priests  and  Worship  ...... 

33.  Decline  of  Religion  

C.  MILITARY  AFFAIRS. 

§34.  Military  service  ....... 

35.  Infantry.  Cavalry  ...... 

36.  Officers.  Generals  ....... 

37.  Taxiarchs,  Lochagi,  Ilipparchs,  Phylarchs,  Peripol- 

archs  ......... 

38.  Manner  of  making  War 

39.  The  fleet  ........ 

40.  Naval  Officers — Equipment — Engagements 

D.  FINANCE. 

§41.  Expenditure — Cost  of  Public  Worship 

42.  War:  the  Standing  Army — the  Navy 

43.  Public  Buildings — Police — Public  Rewards 

44.  Payment  for  certain  Public  Duties 

45.  Various  largesses  ....... 

46.  Revenue  ........ 

47.  Ordinary  Revenue  from  the  Landed  Property  of  the 

State,  the  Alien-Tax,  and  Duties  .... 

48.  Fines,  Payments  on  Law-suits — Confiscations 

49.  Tribute-money  of  the  Allies  . 

50.  Ordinary  Services  (or  Liturgies)  of  the  Citizens 

51.  Extraordinary  Sources  of  Revenue  . . . . 

52.  Extraordinary  Liturgies — The  Trierarchy 

53.  General  arrangements  respecting  ordinary  and  extraor- 

dinary Liturgies  ....... 

54.  Management  of  the  Finances.  Different  officers  for 

the  collection,  custody,  and  disbursement  of  the  public 
funds  ......... 

55.  Money  ........ 


PRIVATE  LIFE. 

§1.  General  remarks 

2.  Trades 

3.  Same  subject  continued 

4.  Weights  and  Measures 

5.  Same  subject  continued 

6.  Division  of  Time 

7.  Same  subject  continued 


PASS 

117 

ib. 

118 

119 

120 

121 

ib. 

122 

123 

ib. 

124 

ib. 

125 

126 

ib. 

127 

ib. 

128 

129 

130 

ib. 

131 

132 

ib. 

134 

ib. 

135 

136 

ib. 

137 

ib. 

138 

ib. 

139 


CONTENTS, 


Xlll 


PAGE 


§ 8.  Physical  and  moral  Training  of  Boys  . . . 140 

9.  Same  subject  continued  .....  141 

10.  Same  subject  continued  ......  ib. 

11.  Female  Education  ......  142 

12.  Meals ib. 

13.  Dress  .........  144 

14.  Houses  .........  ib. 

15.  Funerals  ........  145 


POINTS  OF  UNION  FOR  THE  WHOLE  OF  GREECE. 

A.  FESTIVALS  AND  GAMES. 

§1.  Local  Festivals.  The  great  National  Festivals  . . 146 

2.  The  Olympic  Games  ......  147 

3.  The  Pythian  Games  .......  148 

4.  The  Nemean  Games  ......  149 

5.  The  Isthmian  Games  ......  ib, 

6.  Character  of  the  Contests  .....  ib. 

7.  Rewards  of  the  Victors  . . . . . . 151 

8.  The  Olympiads,  and  the  Computation  of  Time  founded 

on  them  . . . . . ...  . 152 

9.  Mode  of  reducing  the  Olympic  reckoning  to  that  of  the 

Christian  era  .......  ib. 

B.  ORACLES,  ESPECIALLY  THE  ORACLE  OF  DELPHI. 

§10.  Oracles  in  general — the  Oracle  of  Dodona  . . . 154 

11.  The  Oracle  of  Apollo  at  Delphi  ....  155 

12.  Decline  of  the  Delphi  Oracle  . . , . . 156 

13.  Its  arrangements  .......  ib. 

14.  Other  Oracles  157 


POINTS  OF  UNION  FOR  PARTICULAR  PARTS  OF  GREECE. 

A.  LEAGUE  OF  THE  AMPHICTYONS. 


§1.  Amphictyoniae  in  general 157 

2.  The  Amphictyonite  at  Thermopylae  and  Delphi.  Their 

extent,  object,  and  history 158 

3.  Same  subject  continued  ......  159 

4.  Internal  regulations  of  the  Amphictyonic  league  . ib. 

B.  LEAGUES  BETWEEN  TEE  INHABITANTS  OF  THE  SAME  DISTRICT. 

§5.  Of  such  Leagues  in  general  .....  160 

6.  Leagues  of  the  Boeotians  .....  161 

7.  The  Achaean  League  ......  162 

8.  Constitution  of  the  Achaean  League  ...  ib. 

9.  The  HStolian  League  ......  163 

10.  Constitution  of  the  iEtolian  League  ...  ib 


XIV 


CONTENTS. 


C.  SYMMACHI2E  AND  HEGEMONIES. 

PAOB 


§1.  History  of  the  Hegemonia.  Sparta  ....  164 

2.  Sparta  and  Athens  .......  ib. 

3.  Sparta,  Athens,  Thebes,  Macedonia  ....  165 

COLONIAL  RELATIONS. 

§ 1.  History  of  Colonization  ......  166 

2.  Same  subject  continued  ......  167 

3.  Causes  of  Colonization  ......  ib. 

4.  Mode  of  sending  out  Colonies — their  relation  to  the 

mother  country  .......  ib, 

5.  Political  Constitution  of  the  Colonies  . . . 168 

6.  Appendix  concerning  the  Cleruchise  ....  169 

Questions 171 


MANUAL 


OF 

GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Authorities. 

1.  Our  knowledge  of  Grecian  Antiquities  is  derived 
principally  from  the  writers  of  that  nation.  Homer  for 
instance  (who  flourished,  it  is  supposed,  about  b.  c.  1000) 
furnishes  us  with  most  of  the  information  which  we 
possess  concerning  the  heroic  ages ; but  after  his  days, 
and  those  of  Hesiod,  the  absence  of  contemporary  no- 
tices for  many  centuries  renders  us  almost  entirely 
dependent  on  later  writers  for  an  account  of  the  times 
which  preceded  them,  as  well  as  of  their  own.  Among 
these  authorities  we  may  place  in  the  first  rank  the  his- 
torians, such  as  Herodotus,  Thucydides,  Xenophon, 
Polybius,  Diodorus,  and  Plutarch ; the  geographers, 
Strabo  and  Pausanias ; and  the  orators,  Antiphon,  An- 
docides,  Lysias,  Isocrates,  Iseeus,  Lycurgus,  Demos- 
thenes, iEschines,  and  Dinarchus.  Important  informa- 
tion respecting  manners,  constitutions,  and  political 
economy,  is  supplied  by  the  philosophers,  especially 
Plato  and  Aristotle,  and  by  some  of  the  poets,  Aristo- 
phanes for  instance  ; whilst  the  writings  of  later  gram- 
marians and  compilers,  such  as  Athenseus  and  flElian, 
of  the  scholiasts  on  Aristophanes  and  other  authors, 
and  of  the  lexicographers,  as  Pollux,  Harpocration, 
Hesychius,  Photius,  Zonaras,  and  Suidas,  the  authors 


16 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


of  the  ’ Ervfioloyixbv  fiiya  and  other  dictionaries,  furnish 
a considerable  number  of  detached  notices.  To  these 
sources  of  knowledge  may  be  added  the  study  of  in- 
scriptions, coins,  and  other  relics  of  antiquity. 


GEOGRAPHY. 

§ 1 . Boundaries  and  divisions  of  the  country. 

2.  By  the  name  of  Hellas  ' (EXXag)  the  Greeks  were 
accustomed  to  describe  the  land  inhabited  by  the  Hel- 
lenes (oi  "Elly veff),  rather  than  any  territory  distinctly 
defined  by  natural  or  political  boundaries ; hence,  con- 
siderable difference  of  opinion  has  existed  respecting 
the  extent  of  country  to  which  this  designation  was 
applicable.  The  tract  to  which  we  shall  confine  the 
name,  in  the  present  manual,  is  divided  by  nature  into 
three  parts ; the  Peloponnesus,  the  continent  north  of 
the  Peloponnesus,  and  the  islands.  3.  The  continent  of 
Greece  may  further  be  subdivided  into  two  portions : 
the  northern,  comprehending  Epirus  and  Thessaly, 
with  Magnesia,  and  stretching  from  the  Ceraunian  and 
Cambunian  chains,  and  Mount  Olympus  (its  boundaries 
on  the  side  of  Illyria  and  Macedonia)  to  the  Ambra- 
cian  and  Malian  gulfs ; and  the  southern,  which  con- 
tains the  countries  of  vEtolia,  Acarnania,  Doris,  the 
Locrian  territory,  Phocis,  Boeotia,  Attica,  and  Megaris ; 
and  communicates  with  the  Peloponnesus  by  the  nar- 
row isthmus  of  Corinth.  4.  The  districts  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus are  Arcadia,  Argolis,  Laconia,  Messenia,  Elis, 
and  Achaia.  5.  We  find  also  a considerable  number  of 
islands,  by  wThich  the  continent  is  surrounded  on  every 
side.  Among  these,  the  most  remarkable  are,  Euboea, 
Crete,  Cyprus,  and  the  clusters  of  islets  called  the  Cy- 
clades and  Sporades.  The  groups  in  the  iEgean  Sea 
seem  originally  to  have  belonged  to  the  continent,  from 

1 Hellas,  in  its  most  ancient  signification,  was  the  name  of  a district 
©f  Thessaly,  near  Phthia.  (Homer  II.  ii.  683.) 


HISTORY. 


17 


which  they  were  probably  separated  and  split  mto 
islands  by  some  convulsion  of  nature. 

§ 2.  Natural  character  of  the  country,  and  its  influence 
on  the  people. 

6.  The  character  of  every  people  is  more  or  less 
closely  connected  with  that  of  the  land  which  they  in- 
habit. This  holds  true  with  regard  to  Greece  more 
perhaps  than  any  other  European  country.  Greece  is 
divided  by  its  mountain  chains,  and  the  gulfs  which 
penetrate  deep  into  the  interior  of  the  continent,  into 
several  regions,  with  a great  variety  of  soil  and  climate. 
No  country  in  Europe  possesses  such  an  extent  of  coast 
in  proportion  to  its  superficial  area.  Its  natural  capa- 
bilities, whilst  they  give  promise  of  abundant  success 
to  agriculture,  the  rearing  of  cattle,  and  fisheries,  de- 
mand at  the  same  time  constant  diligence  and  industry. 
From  the  earliest  times  the  attention  of  the  people 
seems  to  have  been  directed  to  navigation  and  com- 
merce ; but  the  same  peculiarities  of  situation  which 
invited  such  undertakings,  would  render  foreign  con- 
quest, as  well  as  a nomadic  (=  wandering  or  unsettled 
mode  of)  life  within  their  own  frontiers,  exceedingly 
difficult,  and  promote  the  separation  of  the  people  into 
a number  of  small  independent  states,  without  however 
checking  in  any  considerable  degree  their  intercourse 
with  one  another.2 


HISTORY. 

§ 1.  The  Grecian  tribes. 

7.  A great  part  of  Greece,  as  of  the  neighboring 
countries,  is  said  to  have  been  peopled,  in  days  of  yore, 
by  the  Pelasgians,  a race  connected  with  the  Italians 
and  Indians,  who  appear  to  have  emigrated  from  Asia, 
and  divided  themselves  into  two  branches,  the  Latin 


* Consult  Thirlwall’s  History  of  Greece,  vol.  i.  pp.  33-42. 


18 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


and  the  Greek.  We  read  also  of  other  tribes,  such  as 
the  Thracians,  vestiges  of  whose  influence  may  be  dis- 
covered in  the  early  Greek  religion  and  poetry — the 
LSlSges,  Dryopes,3  &c.  By  degrees  the  Hellenes  (o l 
" Elhjveg ),  a tribe  nearly  allied  to  the  Pelasgians,  spread 
from  the  south  of  Thessaly  (where  they  are  mentioned 
by  Homer,  II.  ii.  684,  as  dwelling  together  with  the 
Myrmidons),  and  partly  by  expelling  the  original  in- 
habitants, partly  by  incorporating  them  into  their  own 
nation,  succeeded  in  giving  their  name  to  the  whole  of 
Greece.  8.  Hence  the  tradition,  which  derives  the 
four  principal  Grecian  tribes,  the  iEolians,  Dorians, 
Ionians,  and  Achaeans,  from  the  sons  or  grandsons  of  a 
mythic  patriarch  named  Hellen.  Of  these,  the  iEo- 
lians  were  spread  over  Greece  from  the  remotest  anti- 
quity ; the  Achaeans4  were  a powerful  nation  in  the 
heroic  ages ; and  the  Ionians  and  Dorians  became 
more  important  than  either,  though  at  a somewhat 
later  period.  9.  Other  traditions,  of  a very  mythical 
and  unsatisfactory  character,  mention  the  immigration 
of  foreigners,  such  as  Danaus  and  Cecrops,  who  planted 
Egyptian  colonies  in  Argos  and  Attica ; Cadmus,  the 
leader  of  certain  Phoenicians,  who  settled  in  Boeotia ; 
and  Pelops,  who  came  from  Asia  to  the  Peloponnesus. 
Thus  much  is  certain,  that  the  connexion  of  Greece 
with  Asia  is  of  very  ancient  date,  and  that  the  art  of 
writing  was  learnt  from  the  Phoenicians ; although  the 
intercourse  of  the  Greeks  with  foreigners  was  far  from 
exercising  so  overwhelming  an  influence  as  to  change 
the  national  character  in  any  essential  particular.5 6 

3 To  the  same  class  belong  the  Centaurs,  Lapithae,  Dolopians,  and 
other  Thessalian  tribes;  the  Phlegyans  and  Minyans  in  Thessaly  and 
Bceotia  ; the  Curetes  in  jEtolia,  Acarnania,  and  Euboea;  the  Epeans  and 
Caucones  in  Elis,  with  many  others.  We  are  ignorant  of  the  precise  re- 
lation which  these  tribes  bore  to  the  people  mentioned  in  the  text. 

4 In  Homer,  the  terms  Achsei,  Argeii,  and  Danai,  are  used  as  general 
names  for  the  whole  nation.  EpatKoi  seems  to  have  been  an  ancient 
designation  of  the  Hellenes,  when  they  dwelt  near  Dodona  in  Epirus. 

Thence  it  was  earned  to  the  coast  of  Italy ; and  subsequently  disappeared 
from  nistory,  until  it  was  revived  by  the  Romans. 

6 See  Thirlwall’s  Hist,  of  Greece,  vol.  i.  pp.  42-57. 


HISTORY. 


19 


§ 2.  Migration  of  the  tribes. 

10.  The  notices  of  those  remote  times,  if  we  ex- 
cept the  light  thrown  on  the  events  of  the  Trojan  war 
(b.  c.  1184)  by  the  poems  of  Homer,  are  hopelessly 
obscure  and  confused.  Some  traditions,  however,  have 
reached  us  of  revolutions  and  migrations  among  the 
tribes,  which  were  occasioned  by  various  political  con- 
vulsions, not  only  before,  but  subsequently  to,  the  siege 
of  Troy.  The  last  of  these  was  the  immigration  of 
the  Dorians  and  ./Etolians  into  the  Peloponnesus  (b.  c. 
1104) ; from  which  period  we  may  date  the  supremacy 
of  the  Hellenic  name.  11.  In  consequence  of  this 
movement,  the  Dorians  became  possessors  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  Peloponnesus,  the  ancient  inhabit- 
ants of  which  were  either  enslaved  or  expelled,  or 
were  incorporated  into  the  Dorian  tribe.  The  Achae- 
ans,  who  had  previously  occupied  a considerable  por- 
tion of  the  peninsula,  were  now  forced  to  take  refuge 
in  Aigialos6  (Achaia7) ; from  which  they  expelled  the 
Ionians,  who  migrated  in  the  first  instance  to  Attica, 
and  thence  at  a later  period  to  the  western  coast  of 
Asia  Minor,  where  colonies  were  also  founded  by 
other  Grecian  tribes.  These  migrations  having  grad- 
ually ceased,  the  different  nations  remained  occupants 
each  of  its  own  distinct  territory.  12.  Of  the  princi- 
pal tribes  the  iEolians  possessed  Boeotia,  a part  of 
Euboea,  some  of  the  islands,  as  Lesbos  and  Tengdos, 
and  the  coast  of  Mysia.  The  Ionians  colonized  Attica, 
a part  of  Euboea,  the  Cyclades,  and  the  coast  of  Lydia, 
with  several  of  the  islands.  The  Dorians  had  Doris,  a 
great  part  of  Peloponnesus,  Megaris,  Crete,  and  a 
number  of  the  smaller  islands.  In  some  districts, 
especially  in  Northern  Greece  (Locris,  Phocis,  iEtolia, 
and  Acarnania,  for  instance),  we  still  find  pre-Hellenic 

6 See  prefatory  note  on  the  orthography  of  Greek  names  of  deities, 
places,  &c. 

7 Of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Peloponnesus,  the  Arcadians  and  Cynuri- 
ans  were  the  only  people  who  retained  their  original  settlements  (Autoch- 
thones). 


20 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIE3. 


tribes.  In  Thessaly  dwelt  the  Thessalians,  who  had 
migrated  from  Thesprotia  in  Elis,  the  Minyans  and 
vEtolians ; and  in  the  colonies,  a mixture  of  all  the  dif- 
ferent races.  Among  the  Ionians  and  Dorians,  more 
than  any  other  people,  we  find  a distinctly  marked 
family  character,  which  manifests  itself  in  their  lan- 
guage, literature,  cultivation  of  the  arts,  and  political 
institutions. 

§ 3.  Development  of  political  institutions.  Decline  and 
fall  of  monarchy 

13.  We  learn  from  Homer  that  in  the  heroic  age 
(b.  c.  1384-1184)  Greece  was  divided  into  a number 
of  petty  independent  states,  governed  by  kings,  whose 
authority,  though  considered  to  be  of  divine  origin, 
does  not  seem  to  have  been  very  distinctly  defined 
with  reference  either  to  the  aristocracy  or  to  the 
people.  This  separation  into  small  states  was  of  long 
continuance,  nor  do  we,  in  fact,  ever  hear  of  any  per- 
manently established  confederacy  among  the  Greeks. 
The  states  were  formed  by  the  voluntary  annexation 
of  a district  or  tract  of  country  to  some  city  which 
had  risen  into  importance  by  its  trade  or  commerce. 
Hence  the  similarity  of  the  words  used  to  express  the 
notions  of  “ a city,”  and  “ a state  ” (nohg,  nohzua,  no- 
UzEvfiu).  14.  In  these  states  (with  the  exception  of 
Epirus)  the  form  of  government  was  gradually  changed, 
between  the  years  3.  c.  1100  \and  900,  from  the  mo- 
narchical to  the  republican ; a revolution  which  was 
favored  by  the  innate  love  of  the  Greeks  for  freedom 
and  independence,  the  insignificant  extent  of  the  states 
themselves,  and  the  tendency  of  men’s  residence  toge- 
ther in  cities  to  develop  a civic  constitution  ; especially 
when  the  low  state  of  intellectual  cultivation,  their 
simpler  political  relations,  and  the  general  employment 
of  slaves8  (captives  taken  in  war,  or  purchased  from 

8 The  purchase  and  use  of  slaves  are  repeatedly  mentioned  by  Homer: 
the  household  of  Ulysses  is  served  by  slaves,  over  whom  their  master  ex- 
ercises the  power  of  life  and  death.  But  the  use  of  such  domestics  was 


HISTORY. 


21 


the  barbarians),  placed  all  freemen  on  a comparatively 
equal  footing.  Not  unfrequently  the  change  of  con- 
stitution was  occasioned,  or  at  least  hastened,  by  the 
misconduct  of  the  king  himself. 

\ 

§ 4.  The  Aristocracy . 

15.  The  development,  however,  of  the  popular 
form  of  government  was  gradual.  The  first  move- 
ment was  made  by  the  aristocracy,  whose  encroach- 
ments undermined  the  monarchy,  and  paved  the  way 
for  more  liberal  institutions,  without  either  violently 
overthrowing  the  kingly  power,  or  assuming  a hostile 
attitude  against  the  as  yet  imperfectly  developed  de- 
mocracy. The  foundation  of  such  an  aristocracy  was 
gentle  birth  ( evnazQtSai , svysvsTg),  with  its  accompany- 
ing personal  qualifications,  freehold  property,  knightly 
service  (ysmyoQoi,  innoftorcu,  inneig),  and  at  a later 
period,  when  commerce  had  increased,  the  possession 
of  personal  wealth  (oi  nlovatot,  oi  th  yo^uara  eyovreg). 
16.  This  distinction  between  the  aristocracy  and  the 
people  is  expressed  by  the  terms  oi  y.alol  xuya&ot,  oi  ia&lot, 
oi  ctQidJOt;  on  the  one  side ; and  oi  novrjQoi,  oi  8aloi,  oi 
Hanoi,  on  the  other.  Sometimes  it  was  founded  on  the 
distinction  between  city  and  country,  especially  where 
foreign  conquerors  had  taken  possession  of  a town, 
and  circumscribed  the  civil  privileges  of  the  van- 
quished. In  such  cases  the  latter  were  either  per- 
mitted to  retain  their  personal  liberty  and  property, 
subject,  however,  to  the  payment  of  tribute  and  the 
forfeiture  of  their  civic  rights,  or  were  deprived  of 
their  freedom,  and  became  the  bondsmen  of  their  con- 
querors, like  the  Helots  (aila  z eg)  at  Sparta,  or  the 
Tenestae  (nzviazai)  in  Thessaly. 

perhaps  nowhere  very  common,  except  in  the  houses  of  the  great,  and  in 
several  parts  of  Greece  was  not  introduced  till  a later  period.  This  is 
asserted  by  Herodotus  (vi.  137)  of  the  Greeks  in  general  and  of  the 
Athenians  in  particular. — Thirlwall’s  History  of  Greece,  vol.  i.  p.  83. 


22 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


§ 5.  Development  of  the  Democracy . — Struggle  of 
parties. 

17.  The  taste  for  importance  and  influence  in  the 
state,  when  once  excited,  continued  to  enlarge  its 
circle,  so  that  the  aristocracy  was  by  no  means  per- 
mitted to  remain  in  the  undisturbed  enjoyment  of  the 
power  it  had  acquired.  Such  an  aristocracy  often  de- 
generated into  an  oppressive  oligarchy,  which,  although 
supported  at  first  by  its  hereditary  reputation,  the  pre 
ponderance  of  property  and  intelligence,  and  the  pos 
session  of  arms  and  fortified  places,  was  not  unfre 
quently  involved  in  a fierce  controversy  with  the 
newly  aroused  democratic  spirit  (dryiog,  plebs ) ; which 
produced  a general  struggle  between  the  aristocratic 
and  democratic  parties  throughout  the  whole  of  Greece 
and  her  colonies.  18.  The  results  of  this  struggle 
varied  according  to  circumstances ; but,  in  many  in- 
stances, the  popular  party  was  triumphant,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  wresting  from  its  rival  the  remission  of  debts 
due  from  the  commons  to  the  aristocracy,  the  privilege 
of  intermarrying  with  the  nobles,  equality  of  civil  rights, 
and  a larger  share  in  the  administration.  Sometimes 
these  party  contests  led  to  the  formation  of  a constitu- 
tion, either  through  the  personal  authority  of  some  in- 
dividual ( uiav/jtfijTui ) like  Pittacus  of  Mitylene  (b.  c. 
590),  or  by  means  of  an  established  code  of  laws  like 
those  of  Lycurgus  at  Sparta  (b.  c.  884),  Zaleucus 
among  the  Epizephyrian  Locrians,  Charondas  in  Ca- 
tana  and  several  Chalcidic  cities  (both  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  seventh  century  before  Christ),  and  Solon  at 
Athens  (b.  c.  594).  19.  More  frequently,  however, 

the  efforts  of  the  democracy  ended  in  the  establish- 
ment, for  a time,  of  an  absolute  anti-aristocratic 
monarchy  (rvQavvlg),  in  which  the  ruler’s  will  was  the 
only  law.  Such,  for  example,  was  the  tyranny  of 
Cypselus  at  Corinth  (b.  c.  655),  who,  with  the  assist- 
ance of  the  people,  overthrew  the  oligarchy  of  the 
Bacchiadae.  This  was  especially  the  case  in  the 
seventh  and  sixth  centuries  before  Christ ; yet  it  would 


HISTORY. 


23 


be  a mistake  to  suppose  that  absolute  monarchy  in 
those  days,  provided  always  that  it  did  not  degenerate 
into  caprice  or  ferocity,  was  hostile  to  the  people,  or 
unfavorable  to  the  expression  of  public  opinion. 

§ 6.  The  same  subject  continued. 

20.  The  increase  of  navigation  and  commerce,  the 
extension  of  their  cities,  and  the  more  general  diffusion 
of  knowledge,  were  all  favorable  to  the  development 
of  the  democratic  principle,  which  was,  moreover,  fre- 
quently promoted  by  the  corruption  of  morals  peculiar 
to  an  oligarchy ; sometimes,  too,  it  happened  that  some 
member  of  the  oligarchical  body  became  the  leader  of 
the  popular  party.  .The  Persian  war,  whilst  it  awa- 
kened the  consciousness  of  Greek  nationality,  and 
brought  the  different  states  into  closer  political  con- 
tact, at  once  both  raised  the  courage  of  the  people,  and 
weakened  the  resources  of  the  aristocracy.  In  the 
Peloponnesian  war  (b.  c.  431-404)  the  aristocratic 
party  generally  sided  with  Sparta,  and  the  democratic 
with  Athens : whilst  during  the  whole  war  the  strug- 
gles  of  the  two  factions  continued  as  fiercely  as  ever 
in  the  several  states.  21.  At  the  end  of  this  contest 
the  aristocracy  was  victorious  ; but  its  abuse  of  the 
power  thus  acquired  produced  disturbances,  banish- 
ments, and  wars  of  extermination,  in  which  we  find 
foreign  mercenaries  serving  in  the  place  of  native 
soldiers,  who  were  themselves  also  frequently  hired  in 
the  same  manner  by  foreign  powers.  In  many  places 
there  arose  an  unbridled  and  oppressive  democracy, 
led  by  ambitious  and  selfish  demagogues,  which  was 
resisted  by  oligarchic  factions  or  associations  ( ezaiQeicu , 
avvcoixnaiui).  22.  The  demoralization  produced  during 
these  struggles,  sapped  the  very  foundations  of  Grecian 
liberty,  paved  the  way  for  the  attempts  of  Philip  of 
Macedon  to  obtain  the  sovereignty  of  all  Greece,  and 
made  their  country  the  theatre  of  various  wars  in  the 
days  of  his  successors.  Yet  in  these  very  wars  we 
witness,  from  time  to  time,  flashes  of  the  old  Grecian 


24 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


spiiit:  such,  for  instance,  were  the  attempts  at  Sparta 
to  overthrow  the  oligarchy,  and  re-establish  the  con- 
stitution of  Lycurgus,  and  the  struggle  of  the  demo- 
cratic Achaean  league  against  the  tyranny  and  power 
of  the  Macedonians. 

§ 7.  Decline  and  fall  of  the  Grecian  states. 

23.  In  the  midst  of  all  this  confusion,  the  arms  of 
the  Romans  opened  for  themselves  a way  into  Greece. 
The  taking  of  Corinth  (b.  c.  146)  gave  the  last  blow 
to  Grecian  freedom.  The  political  affairs  of  Greece 
were  now  managed  by  the  Romans ; but  the  governor 
of  Macedonia  still  continued  to  exercise  great  influ- 
ence, until  the  whole  of  Greece  was  at  last  incorpo- 
rated into  one  province,  under  the  name  of  Achaia. 
At  the  same  time  some  of  the  cities  were  treated  more 
indulgently  than  the  rest ; a few,  such  as  Athens  and 
Delphi,  were  even  recognized  as  liberce  civitates. 
Nero’s  whim,  at  a later  period,  of  proclaiming  the  in- 
dependence of  Greece,  produced  no  results.  The  echo 
of  her  former  literary  renown  was  indeed  heard  in 
Athens,  but  national  feeling  and  intellectual  life  were 
extinct ; and  the  land,  weakened  already  by  Roman 
tyranny,  and  the  struggles  of  the  Greeks  with  one  an- 
other, was  utterly  devastated  in  after  times  by  the  bar- 
barian invaders. 

§8.  General  form  of  the  constitution  in  the  free  states 
of  Greece. 

24.  As  essential  parts  of  every  Hellenic  constitu- 
tion, whether  aristocratic  or  democratic,  we  may  notice 
the  Senate  and  the  Popular  Assembly,  both  of  which 
were  always  recognized  from  the  days  of  the  monarchy. 
In  democratic  states  the  sovereign  power  resided  in  the 
General  Assembly  of  the  people  ; in  aristocratic,  it  was 
in  the  hands  of  the  senate  (yeQovota)  or  Assembly  of  the 
Notables.  25.  The  executive  authority  was  vested  in 
a host  of  commissioners,  or  of  magistrates  under  vari- 


HISTORY. 


25 


ous  names,  who,  according  to  the  aristocratic  or  demo- 
cratic form  which  the  ever  changing  constitutions  of 
the  states  happened  for  the  moment  to  assume,  were 
elected  by  a constituency,  and  under  qualifications 
more  or  less  limited,  and  continued  in  office  during  a 
longer  or  shorter  period.  These  functionaries  were 
also  subject  to  a doy.iyaala,  or  trial,  previously  to  enter- 
ing on  their  office,  and  subsequently  were  required  to 
give  an  account  (svdvvrj),  before  the  supreme  govern- 
ment, of  the  manner  in  which  they  had  discharged  its 
duties.  26.  The  judicial  power  was  shared  in  various 
ways  by  the  people,  the  senate,  and  the  magistrates. 
The  more  important  criminal  charges  were  generally 
disposed  of  by  the  people  or  the  senate,  whilst  private 
disputes  were  settled  by  magistrates  or  colleges  of 
judges. 

§ 9.  Ionic  and  Doric  states,  particularly  Athens  and 
Sparta. 

27.  In  that  Grecian  race,  which,  on  account  of  its 
superior  intelligence,  developed  its  powers  most  rapidly, 
and  by  means  of  its  commerce  and  navigation  attained 
the  highest  state  of  prosperity  (I  mean  the  Ionic), 
democracy  made  the  most  rapid  advances.  The  most 
important  among  the  Ionic  states  was  Athens,  where 
the  healthy  life  of  democracy,  and  a yearning  after  a 
free  and  universal  development,  displayed  itself  more 
vigorously  than  elsewhere,  but  soon  degenerated,  as  far 
as  the  multitude  were  concerned,  into  a one-sided 
struggle  for  equality,  capricious  treatment  of  the  pow- 
erful, an  envious  opposition  to  superior  vigor  and 
capacity,  unbridled  licence  and  disobedience,  and  at 
last  into  coarse  selfishness  and  empty  vanity,  which 
was  made  the  tool  of  every  demagogue  and  sycophant 
who  chose  to  flatter  it.  28.  Among  the  Doric  states, 
Sparta  was  the.  most  considerable.  Here  the  genuine 
Spartans,  or  inhabitants  of  the  city,  formed,  in  their 
relation  to  the  Perioeci  or  inhabitants  of  the  country, 
an  aristocracy,  which  at  a later  period  became  an  op- 
2 


26 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


pressive  oligarchy.  Here,  too,  we  find  the  notion,  so 
universally  prevalent  among  the  ancients,  of  the  state’s 
supremacy  over  individual  citizens,  carried  out  to  its 
utmost  extent  of  severity , for  the  state  made,  so  to 
speak,  the  individual  its  bondsman,  broke  up  domestic 
life  almost  entirely,  and  rendered  free  development  im- 
possible. As  long  as  an  enthusiastic  belief  in  the 
sanctity  of  the  state,  and  a stern  resolve  to  obey  its 
laws  and  customs,  reigned  in  the  hearts  of  the  people, 
Sparta  flourished,  and  the  unity  and  concentrated 
power  of  its  constitution  insured  it  victory  over  other 
nations ; but  the  unnatural  fetters  in  which  individual 
freedom  was  bound  by  the  constitution,  could  not 
stand  the  test  of  time ; and  an  immoderate  striving 
after  power  and  riches  ensued,  which  prepared  the 
way  for  the  ruin  and  dissolution  of  the  Spartan  com- 
monwealth. 

§10.  Points  of  union  for  the  whole  of  Greece. — Festi- 
vals and  Oracles. 

29.  Greece  possessed  a system  of  commonwealths, 
each  of  which  was  recognized  by  the  rest ; but  for  the 
continuance  of  this  recognition  there  existed  no  guar- 
antee or  written  instrument,  so  that  there  was  often 
nothing  but  an  opposition  of  interests  to  restrain  the 
violent  encroachments  of  the  more  powerful.  Still, 
though  these  little  states  were  not  only  independent  of 
each  other,  but  often  even  on  terms  of  hostility,3  the 
different  nations  found  a bond  of  union  in  their  general 
name  of  "Elhjveg,  the  consciousness  of  their  descent 
from  the  same  ancestor,  and  a common  language,  reli- 
gion,  and  manners  (to  'Elhjvixov  ibv  o/mtfiov  te  xai  o/uo- 
ylcoaaov  xcu  xtsaiv  idgy/xard  is  xoira  xui  -Ovauti  fjOsa  re 
b\ibxQona,  Herod,  vii.  144) ; at  all  events,  this  nation- 

9 Yet,  at  different  periods  we  find  larger  or  smaller  portions  of  Greece 
united  for  particular  purposes.  Such  was  the  Argonautic  expedition  in 
ancient  times,  the  campaign  of  the  seven  princes  against  Thebes,  and 
above  all,  the  Trojan  war.  At  a later  period,  most  of  the  Greek  states 
formed  an  alliance  against  the  Persians. 


HISTORY. 


27 


ality  was  distinctly  understood  when  they  were  opposed 
to  foreigners  or  barbarians.  The  offspring  of  this  con- 
sciousness was  a sort  of  Grecian  international  law,9 
founded,  however,  on  no  distinct  enactment,  and  liable 
to  be  set  aside  at  any  time  by  the  stronger  party. 
30.  To  the  religious  institutions,  by  which  this  feeling 
of  national  unity  was  sustained,  belonged  their  great 
feasts,  and  the  Olympic,  Delphic,  Nemean,  and  Isthmian 
games ; which,  from  mere  local  observances,  attained 
by  degrees  the  rank  of  national  solemnities,  and  were 
attended  by  embassies  from  all  the  states,  as  well  as  by 
crowds  of  people  from  every  part  of  Greece.  Under 
this  head  we  must  also  class  the  Oracles ; especially 
that  of  Delphi,  which  enjoyed  great  reputation  and  in- 
fluence in  all  the  Grecian  states. 


§ 11.  Points  of  union  for  particular  portions  of  Greece. 
— - The  Amphictyons  local  confederations,  Sym- 
machia,  Hegemonia. 


31.  We  find  that  smaller  portions  of  Greece  were 
also  united  by  religion ; inasmuch  as  their  feasts  and 
common  worship  produced  a closer  relation  (Amphic- 
tyonia)  to  one  another,  by  means  of  which  the  obser- 
vance of  certain  principles  of  international  law  was 
inculcated.  Between  the  inhabitants  of  the  same  dis- 
trict we  often  meet  with  a sort  of  confederation  (as  in 
Bosotia) ; but  the  struggles  of  some  individual  states  for 
supremacy,  and  the  resistance  of  others,  often  weakened, 
or  even  broke  up  these  alliances.  Two  of  these  leagues, 
the  Achsean  and  fEtolian,  obtained  a temporary  im- 


9 Examples  of  this  may  be  found  in  the  practice  of  sending  ambassa- 
dors to  each  other  before  war  was  proclaimed,  sometimes  with  authority 
to  refer  the  dispute  to  arbitration ; in  the  proclamation  of  war  by  heralds, 
whose  persons  were  held  sacred  and  inviolable  ; in  the  respect  paid,  dur- 
ing the  continuance  of  hostilities,  to  temples,  consecrated  ground  and 
priests,  in  the  ransom  of  prisoners,  and  the  infamy  attached  to  those  who 
refused  to  give  up  the  dead,  or  misused  their  bodies  ; in  the  necessity  of 
obtaining  a special  permission  to  pass  with  an  armed  force  through  the 
territories  of  another  power ; and  the  strictness  with  which  the  duties  of 
private  as  well  as  public  hospitality  were  observed. 


28 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


portance  towards  the  end  of  Grecian  independence. 
82.  We  read  also  of  alliances  called  Symmachiae, 
generally  between  nations  of  the  same  race,  which 
were  headed  by  the  most  powerful  members  of  the 
confederacy ; thus,  for  example,  Sparta  took  the  com- 
mand of  the  other  nations  in  the  Persian  war,  and 
Athens  at  a later  period  was  at  the  head  of  most  of  the 
Ionic  states ; but  even  these  alliances  were  generally 
disturbed  by  the  haughtiness  and  selfishness,  with 
which  the  weaker  party  were  treated  by  the  more 
powerful. 


§ 12.  Colonies. 

83.  The  Greek  passion  for  separation  and  indepen- 
dence displayed  itself  in  the  peculiar  relations  which 
subsisted  between  their  colonies  and  the  mother  coun- 
try. Instead  of  clinging,  as  the  Roman  colonists  did, 
to  the  state  which  sent  them  out,  the  Greek  settlers 
always  took  the  earliest  opportunity  of  asserting  their 
independence,  and  breaking  off  all  connexion,  except 
in  matters  of  religion,  with  the  parent  commonwealth. 
In  another  point  of  view  also  these  colonies  gave  proof 
of  the  vigour  and  intellectual  superiority  of  the  Hellenic 
race ; for  in  the  midst  of  barbarians,  by  whom  they 
were  surrounded  on  every  side,  they  still  preserved, 
and  even  spread  their  native  language  and  national 
peculiarities. 


THE  HEROIC  AGE. 

§ 1 . Meaning  of  the  term. 

34.  By  the  heroic  age  we  generally  understand  the 
period  which  elapsed  between  the  first  immigration  of 
the  Hellenes  into  Thessaly,  and  the  expedition  of  the 
Dorians  and  Heraclidse  into  Peloponnesus  in  the  year 
b.  c.  1104.  The  most  distinguished  representatives  of 


THE  HEROIC  AGE. 


29 


this  period  are  Bellerophon,  Perseus,  Hercules,  Theseus, 
Jason,  &nd  the  other  heroes  of  the  Argonautic  expedi- 
tion, with  the  warriors  who  fought  under  the  walls  of 
Troy  and  Thebes.  The  accounts  of  this  period  are  a 
medley  of  historical  notices  and  mythical  legends, 
which  it  is  often  impossible  to  separate  from  one 
another.  35.  The  epoch  most  familiar  to  us,  as  re- 
gards both  the  public  and  private  life  of  the  Greeks,  is 
that  of  the  Trojan  war  (b.  c.  1184)J  The  poems  from 
which  we  derive  this  knowledge,  were,  it  is  true,  com- 
posed somewhat  later  than  the  events  recorded  by 
them,  and  have  not,  as  is  generally  agreed,  come  down 
to  us  in  their  original  form;  still  they  bear  the  stamp 
of  truth  and  harmony  so  deeply  impressed,  that  we 
may  safely  admit  them  as  real  representations  of  the 
times  which  they  describe.1 2 

§ 2.  Civilization. 

36.  In  those  early  times  fierceness  and  brutality, 
war  and  robbery,  reigned  almost  without  control. 
These  evils  were  combated  indeed  by  such  heroes  as 
Minos  (the  putter  down  of  piracy),  Theseus,  and  Her- 
cules ; but  even  at  the  period  of  the  Trojan  war,  civil- 
ization was  still  in  its  infancy.  Violence  in  action  and 
coarseness  of  speech  had  by  no  means  disappeared ; 
piratical  expeditions  and  forages  into  neighbouring 
states  (for  the  purpose  generally  of  driving  off  their 
cattle),  with  the  usual  reprisals  on  the  part  of  the  plun- 
dered, were  of  perpetual  occurrence  ; nor  were  murder 
and  sanguinary  revenge  by  any  means  uncommon. 
On  the  other  hand  traces  of  a milder  and  more  hu- 

1 The  Iliad  and  Odyssey  are  poems  of  which  we  cannot  determine 
the  exact  date,  but  which  seem  both  to  have  existed  prior  to  the  first 
Olympiad,  b.  c.  776,  our  earliest  trustworthy  mark  of  Grecian  time. — 
Grote’s  Hist,  of  Greece,  vol.  i.  p.  485. 

2 Homer  is  supposed  to  have  flourished  about  b.  c.  1000.  Respecting 
the  poems  of  Homer,  the  authorship,  authenticity,  design,  &c.,  consult 
Grote’s  Hist,  of  Greece,  vol.  i.  pp.  434-459  ; vol.  ii  pp.  159-277  ; Thirl- 
wall’s  Hist,  of  Greece,  vol.  i.  pp.  108-110  ; Anthon’s  Classical  Dict’y, 
articles  Homerus,  llias  and  Cdyssea ; &c.  &c. 


30 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


mane  spirit  are  not  wanting.  37.  The  influence  of 
religion  was  felt  in  various  shapes ; men  looked  upon 
the  persons  of  heralds  as  sacred,  and  respected  leagues 
and  armistices.  To  set  against  the  fierce  outbreaks  of 
passion,  many  instances  may  be  produced  of  self-con- 
trol, moderation,  and  respect  to  the  aged  and  experi- 
enced. Public  opinion  began  to  make  itself  respected, 
and  the  fear  of  public  censure  to  have  its  effect  on  the 
powerful.  38.  We  meet  with  numerous  examples  of 
friendship  (Theseus  and  Pirithous,  Achilles  and  Patro- 
clus,  Orestes  and  Pylades)  ; of  kindly  intercourse  with 
old  and  faithful  servants  (Eumaeus  and  Eryclea)  and 
of  connubial  and  parental  affection.  The  stranger,3 
the  necessitous,  or  the  exile,  might  depend  on  being 
hospitably  received  for  the  sake  of  Zeus  (Jupiter),  their 
protector  (Zevg  Igenog,  ixeryntog,  imztfi^raQ  i/.erdcov  re 
\eivmv  re).  Connexions  of  hospitality  between  ances- 
tors were  remembered  and  respected  by  their  descend- 
ants. 39.  We  read  of  nrm^mv  &eoi  xul  ’ EQtvvveg . Stran- 
gers received  a friendly  welcome,  and  were  asked  no 
question  until  they  had  partaken  of  the  family  meal. 
Presents  were  also  given  to  them  (keivfiov,  II.  ix.  197. 
xviii.  369.  Od.  iii.  29.  69.  iv.  20).  40.  Minstrels 

(i^ir/Qeg  koiSol),  as  Phemius  at  Ithaca  and  Demodocus 
among  the  Pheeacians,  enjoyed  distinguished  favour 
and  respect  (Od.  viii.  472 — 481),  for  at  a very  early 
period  the  Greeks  had  learnt  to  ascribe  the  outpourings 
of  genius  to  divine  inspiration  (&tlog,  Oiamg  doidog,  fteog 
amuae  tieontv  doidqv,  Od.  viii.  498.  -Oeog  8s  (vot  iv  epQeaiv 
o’iuag  rtavioiag  ivtrpvoev,  Plesiod.  Theog.  v.  94).  Some- 
times, but  more  rarely,  we  read  of  heroes  (as  Achilles) 
or  the  people,  raising  a song.  (II.  i.  472.  ix.  186.) 

§ 3.  The  State,  and  its  constitution  in  general. 

41.  Politics  were  yet  in  their  infancy.  The  idea 
of  one  all-pervading  political  life  not  being  yet  devel- 

3 That  the  immigrant  was  merely  tolerated  and  protected,  but  enjoy- 
ed no  rights  or  distinctions,  may  be  inferred  from  such  expressions  as 
uri/xriTOS  ficravdiTTris. 


THE  HEROIC  AGE. 


31 


oped,  men’s  notions  of  a commonwealth,  whether  in 
its  external  relations  to  other  states,  or  its  internal 
arrangements,  were  wavering  and  undefined.  Of  any 
recognized  rights  of  nations  we  find  only  a few  feeble 
traces ; for  instance,  in  the  inviolability  of  heralds. 
The  internal  economy  of  the  commonwealth  was  gra- 
dually developed  after  a model  taken  from  private  life. 

42.  Thus  the  most  ancient  form  of  government,  exist- 
ing even  in  the  heroic  ages,  was  the  patriarchal  monar- 
chy, which  does  not  seem  to  have  possessed  any  very 
distinct  character,  or  to  have  defined  very  accurately 
the  rights  and  duties  either  of  prince  or  people.  We 
find,  with  the  King,  an  aristocracy  distinguished  by 
their  ability,  or  skill  in  the  use  of  weapons,  or  property, 
with  a pedigree  derived  by  tradition  from  the  gods  ; 
and,  finally,  a large  body  of  free  citizens.  But  the 
privileges  of  these  three  powers  in  the  state  were  de- 
fined by  no  laws,  and  in  many  instances  ran  impercep- 
tibly into  one  another/ 

§ 4.  The  King. 

43.  The  kingly  office  was  esteemed  sacred ; for 
men  looked  upon  the  power  of  Kings  (II.  ix.  98),  as 
well  as  their  pedigree,  as  derived  from  the  gods,  and 
respected  their  persons  as  being  under  the  immediate 
protection  of  Zeus  (Jupiter)  himself  (II.  ii.  197.  Siotqe- 
qssg  paoihijeg,  8 toys  vug,  Horn.  iy.  8s  /hog  ^aai)J]sg,  Hesiod)  ; 
but  the  estimation  in  which  the  sovereign  power  was 
held  depended  also  on  personal  qualifications,  and  was 
by  no  means  secure  against  usurpation  ; as  we  find  in 
the  instances  of  Penelope’s  suitors,  and  iEgisthus. 

44.  The  form  of  government,  however,  was  not  al- 

4 On  the  whole,  the  society  depicted  in  the  old  Greek  poems  is  loose 
and  unsettled,  presenting  very  little  oflegal  restraint,  and  still  less  of  legal 
protection,  but  concentrating  such  political  power  as  does  exist  in  the 
hands  of  a legitimate  hereditary  king,  whose  ascendency  over  the  other 
chiefs  is  more  or  less  complete,  according  to  his  personal  force  and  char- 
acter ; whether  that  ascendency  be  greater  or  less,  however,  the  mass  of 
the  people  is  in  either  case  politically  passive  and  of  little  account. — . 
Grcie’s  Hist,  of  Greece, v ol.  ii.  p.  106. 


32 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


ways  monarchical ; at  least  we  read  in  Homer’s  cata- 
logue of  the  ships,  that  of  the  nations  there  enumerated 
some  had  two  leaders  (as  the  Basotians,  Phocians,  and 
Cretans),  some  three  with  a commander-in-chief  (as 
Argos  and  several  cities  in  Argolis),  and  others  four 
(as  the  Eleans).  Generally  speaking,  the  throne  was 
hereditary,  but  without  any  very  definite  settlement 
of  the  order  of  succession  ; in  default  of  male  heirs  it 
might  descend  to  a female,  as  in  the  instance  of  Hele- 
na. The  King  (6  fiaoilevg)  commanded  the  army  in 
time  of  war,  administered  justice  in  conjunction  with 
the  Senate  (dtxccoaokoi,  -Oeyiazonoloi  fiaaiUjeg),  and  offered 
the  public  sacrifices,  although,  in  other  respects,  his 
office  was  distinct  from  the  priesthood.  45.  Ill-defined 
as  the  boundaries  between  right  and  wrong  were  in 
individual  cases,  there  was  not  wanting  a general  idea 
of  the  duties  of  Kings,  which  displayed  itself  in  com- 
plaints when  their  power  was  capriciously  abused,  and 
in  praises  of  a paternal  government.  (II.  ii.  24.  i.  231. 
xii.  310.  Od.  iv.  030.  ii.  234.)  Their  ensign  of  dignity 
was  the  sceptre  (axrjnr()or5),  a staff,  which  they  always 
bore  on  public  occasions.  They  were  attended  by 
XTjQvxsg  heralds,  and  official  servants.  Among  their 
prerogatives  (zifiij,  ysgug)  were  precedence  at  public 
assemblies  and  conferences,  a separate  portion  of  land 
(zefievog),  presents  and  tributes  (dmou.  Smzirou,  {h'utuztg), 
and  the  first  choice  of  the  booty  taken  in  war,  of  which 
they  received  also  a larger  share  than  others. 

§ 5.  The  Aristocracy . 

46.  The  aristocracy  were  distinguished  by  the 
names  of  rjQcoeg,  uqigzoi,  KQt<jzi]eg,  i%o%cu  avSQsg.  With 
reference  to  their  dignity  they  were  also  called  yegovzeg 
and  fiaatlryg,  and  on  account  of  their  share  in  the  de- 
liberations . of  the  Council  or  Senate  (fiovh'i)  had  the 
title  of  king’s  counsellors  (^ovlrjcpoQoi  uvdQtg).  They 
took  part  in  affairs  of  state,  composed  the  flower  of  the 

6 Sceptres  were  also  jorne  by  heralds,  generals,  when  they  harangued 
the  people,  and  judges. 


THE  HEROIC  AGE. 


33 


army,  and  enjoyed  in  consequence  peculiar  distinc- 
tions (j'f 'oa,\  ohog  ytQovatos)-  Agamemnon  had  for  his 
council  the  princes,  who  were  sovereigns  in  their  own 
lands  ; Priam  had  the  Trojan  8>ifioyzqovzes,  and  Alci- 
nous  the  Pheeacian  ficcoilijeg. 

§ G.  The  People. 

47.  The  mass  of  free  burghers  (SJ/fiog,  lews  or  Xuol ) 
composed  the  general  Assembly  of  the  people  (uyool/). 
Their,  power,  although  unconfirmed  by  any  distinct  re- 
cognition of  their  privileges,  was  by  no  means  without 
influence,  nor  was  it  ever  safe  to  resist  the  open  ex- 
pression of  public  opinion  (Od.  xiv.  239.  xvi.  425.)  It 
does  not  seem,  however,  that  the  Assemblies  were  ever 
convened  for  the  express  purpose  of  deciding  questions, 
or  at  certain  definite  periods,  but  rather  came  together, 
as  occasion  required,  to  receive  communications,  or 
convey  their  wishes  to  the  king,  as  a guide  for  his 
conduct.  No  expression  of  dissent  is  mentioned,  but 
simply  of  approbation  (II.  ii.  335) ; still  less  does  any 
individual  ever  seem  to  have  possessed  the  power  of 
coming  forward  on  his  own  authority.  48.  Chryses 
(II.  i.  15)  addresses  himself,  it  is  true,  to  all  the  Achse- 
ans,  who  express  their  approbation  of  his  arguments. 
Agamemnon,  nevertheless,  in  spite  of  this  demonstra- 
tion decides  the  question  himself,  and  that  without  any 
remonstrance  from  the  Assembly.  In  the  second  book 
of  the  Iliad,  Agamemnon  pretends  to  consult  the  people 
on  the  subject  of  their  return  to  Greece ; but  although 
they  eagerly  embrace  the  proposal,  we  find  the  will  of 
their  princes  carried  into  effect  by  means  of  persua- 
sion, threats,  and  blows.  Thersites,  ugly  and  deformed, 
but  fluent  in  speech,  and  the  only  man  who  dared  to 
express  his  opinion  unreservedly,  is  roughly  handled 
by  Odysseus  (Ulysses),  to  the  great  delight  and  satis- 
faction of  the  people.  We  read  of  classifications  or 
sections  of  the  people  under  the  names  of  cpvXa  and 

< fQljZQUl . 


2* 


34 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


§ 7.  Administration  of  Justice. 

49.  The  administration  of  justice  was  not  directed 

by  any  fixed  written  laws  (the  expression  vopog,  Law, 
never  occurs  in  Homer),6  but  depended  on  certain 
maxims  founded  on  experience  and  ancient  custom 
( 8[y.t]  and  -Ot'/iig),  and  was  supposed  to  be  under  the 
especial  protection  of  the  gods,  particularly  of  Zeus 
and  Themis  (II.  i.  239.  Od.  ii.  69).  The  government 
seems  to  have  concerned  itself  very  very  little  about 
private  disputes,  unless  the  parties  themselves  wished 
the  matter  to  be  decided  publicly  or  by  arbitration.  In 
such  cases,  the  more  important  questions  were  settled 
by  the  king,  generally  with  the  assistance  of  his  Coun- 
cil of  Elders  ysqovtav),  according  to  the  rules  of 

equity,  or  of  some  custom  sanctioned  by  divine  autho- 
rity ( &t'[uazeg ).  Most  of  these  cases  seem  to  have  been 
claims  of  compensation  for  murders  or  injury  to  pro- 
perty. The  murderer  endeavoured  to  propitiate  the 
family  of  the  murdered  man  by  submitting  to  a fine 
( noivij ),  II.  ix.  633 — 636 ; but  if  he  failed  in  arranging 
this,  he  escaped  their  vengeance  by  voluntary  exile. 
The  form  of  such  a process  is  seen  in  II.  xviii.  407 — - 
508. 

§ 8.  Religion . 

50.  The  supernatural  world  of  the  Greeks,  as  its 
image  was  impressed  on  the  minds  of  the  people  by 
the  lively  representations  of  Homer’s  poetry,  was 
peopled  with  beings  who  exercised  a control  over  na- 
ture, but  were  subject  to  human  passions  and  lusts, 
and  maintained  a constant  intercourse  with  mankind. 

51.  The  means  by  which  man  approached  the  gods 
were  prayers  and  vows  (tvyal,  svycoh'j,  Inal : uqugOcu, 
evysa Dai,  yuqag  drr/uv,  ogtystv,  yomdteodui),  libations 
( onivSziv , Xtlfieiv  : yof  onovdal  axgyrot),  sacrifices7  ( Dvalai , 


s It  occurs  only  twice  in  Hesiod’s  “ Works  and  Days ” (276,338). 

7 The  mythic  legends  often  mention  human  sacrifices.  In  Homer  we 


The  heroic  age. 


35 


IsQCi  Qf £m)  of  oxen,  sheep,  and  goats,  sometimes  in  great 
numbers  (i'xaro'/W/).  of  beasts  without  blemish  (ziletog) 
which  had  never  laboured  for  man.  Sometimes  the 
horns  of  the  victims  were  gilded.  For  the  sacrificial 
usages  compare  Homer,  II.  i.  448,  ii.  420.  Od.  iii.  436. 
Oaths  were  confirmed  by  a sacrifice  (bgxiu  zunvsiv,  II. 
iii.  105),  and  libations.  Other  gifts  (8<x>qu,  dydlfiaza, 
Ovsa)  were  presented  to  the  gods  as  expiatory  or  thank- 
offerings  ; Hecuba,  for  instance,  (II.  vi.  293)  offered  a 
nin log  to  Athene  (Minerva).  52.  Prayers,  libations, 
and  sacrifices  were  also  accompanied  by  purification 
or  washing  of  hands  {dnolvualvsad  ut,  XMQceg  vlnzto&ut). 

§ 9.  Temples — Priests  and  Prophets — Oracles. 

53.  The  objects  employed  in  the  worship  of  tne 
gods  were  Temples  (vtjog,  do^og),  consecrated  Groves 
or  enclosures  («' fzsvog),  and  Altars  (pa^og).  In  the 
temple  of  Apollo,  or  the  Acropolis  of  Troy  we  hear  of 
an  ddvrov , and  in  the  temple  of  Athene  (Minerva)  on 
the  same  hill  there  was  a statue  of  the  goddess.  Wor- 
ship was  performed  by  the  master  of  the  family,  and  in 
the  case  of  public  sacrifices  by  leaders  or  kings. 
There  were,  however,  priests  especially  set  apart  for 
the  service  of  certain  gods  or  temples  (izQlieg,  aQijzijQEg, 
xhoasooi),  as  Chryses,  the  priest  of  Apollo.  54.  Men- 
tion is  also  made  of  diviners  and  wizards  (fiarnsg, 
{teonQonoi),  who  foretold  events  from  signs  (zequzu, 
GrjfictTci),  such  as  thunder  and  lightning;  or  from  the 
song  and  flight  of  birds,  especially  birds  of  prey 
(oiaronoloi,  olconazal,  dt'gthg  oqvig ) ; or  from  dreams 
(6v£ioo7z6).oi).  At  a very  early  period  we  find  traces  of 
certain  sacerdotal  families,  in  which  the  priestly  office 
was  hereditary;  and  of  oracles — as  for  example,  the 
oracle  of  Zeus  (Jupiter)  at  Doddna,  in  Epirus,  where 
the  god  made  his  revelations  from  a sacred  oak  («? 
dQvog  vipf/.o/xoio),  and  the  Pythian  oracle  of  Apollo 
(jqeicov  (iJotfiog  ' Ano/./.m). 

find  Achilles  offering  twelve  Trojans  to  the  ghost  of  Patroclus. — See 
Thirlwall’s  Hist,  of  Greece,  vol.  i.  pp.  93,  94. 


36 


MANUAL  OP  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


§ 10.  War.  Offensive  and  defensive  arms. 

55.  The  weapons  of  the  old  rough  times  were  stones 
and  clubs,  the  latter  of  which  were  wielded  by  Her- 
cules  and  Orion.  The  club  (xoQvvtf)  was  never  em- 
ployed by  Homer’s  heroes,  but  it  is  mentioned  in  II.  vii. 
138  (fslQrfdoog  xoyvvijztjg).  Stones  ( %eqhu8iov ) were 
used  occasionally.  56.  Their  offensive  weapons  were 
bows  and  arrows  (to 5 or,  vtvou  foeict,  log,  oiyzog,  fflog8 9), 
quivers  (cpaQETQrf),  the  spear  (8oqv,  tyyog,  fyxEltl>  ^eazor, 
(islia.'),  with  its  head  of  bronze  {aiyfftj  yaXykuf),  and  the 
oavQornjt)  or  ovQiuyogf  the  spiked  end  of  the  lower  ex- 
tremity of  the  shaft : the  sword  {qdayavov,  udq,  £ icpog ), 
with  its  scabbard  f/.oXeov)  and  strap  (zsXafimv  or  doQzrjt)). 
Slings  (crqp Evdovrj)  and  battle-axes  (ugj'rq,  nitsxvg)  were 
sometimes,  but  rarely,  used.  57.  The  defensive  arms 
were  the  helmet  (xopvg,  xvvtij,  nffff,  zfjvqdXeta,  azecfidvij 
evyaXxog)  with  a crest  of  horsehair  (Xocpog  Innnog  or 
iTtmoyairrjg,  xoQvg  innovQtg,  Innoddoeia,  irznoxopiog)  and 
one  or  more  ydXoi  or  bosses ; mention  is  also  made  of 
a low  morion  without  a crest  (x«r«m>£),  and  the  cuirass 
(tlco^l,  consisting  of  two  pieces,  yictXa,  ytzmv  gzqstztos). 
Hence  : 'Aycuo'i  yaXxoyizavsg : but  Ajax,  tbe  son  of  Oile- 
us,  was  hvodcoQtji,  i.  e.  wore  a breastplate  of  linen. 
58.  They  had  also  belts,  and  waistbands  (fcoazr/p, 
ffzQu3),  greaves  (xvzipilSeg) , a shield  (ody.og,  danig)  of  skins 
and  plates  of  brass,  with  a knob  or  boss  (opapaXog)  in 
the  middle,  and  a leathern  rim  (art t’£)  : it  was  furnished 
on  the  inside  with  cross-bars  ( xdvoveg ) and  a thong 
(zsXaptcov).  There  were  also  lighter  shields  (laiafia). 
The  metal  usually  employed  was  bronze  or  copper. 
Iron  wras  used  for  axes  : silver,  polished  steel  ( xvuvog ), 

8 Kopvvri  in  Homer,  and  in  the  Attic  poets;  except  Eur.  Suppl.  715. 

9 A general  name  for  all  missile  weapons. 

1 MsAi'a  properly  ash^tree : the  shaft  being  frequently  the  barked  and 
polished  stem  of  a young  ash. 

2 In  Attic  or  common  Greek  orvpaf. 

3 The  qoorijf)  was  worn  above  the  foo/la  and  pirpa,  Ion.  -o  (i.  e. 
woollen  and  sometimes  plated  belt  worn  about  the  abdomen).  It  seems 
to  have  been  a constituent  part  of  the  cuirass,  serving  to  fasten  it  by 
means  of  a buckle,  and  also  affording  an  additional  protection  to  tha 
body,  and  having  a short  petticoat  attached  to  it. 


fHE  HEROIC  AGE. 


3? 


and  tin  (xaaalreQog)  to  ornament  their  armour.  The 
complete  equipment  of  a warrior  was  termed  zevyeu, 
also  onlu.  (in  the  Iliad),  and  evzea. 

§11.  The  Battle. 

59.  The  art  of  war  was  in  its  infancy  in  the  heroic 
age ; the  fate  of  a battle  being  mostly  decided  rather 
by  the  bravery  of  individual  warriors  than  by  any 
well-considered  arrangements  or  the  application  of 
military  tactics.  We  do,  it  is  true,  find  some  traces 
of  discipline  in  II.  ii.  362.  iv.  297.  Nestor  and  Mnes- 
theus  are  celebrated  for  their  acquaintance  with  it : 
and  the  quiet  and  steady  march  of  the  Achagans  is  con- 
trasted with  the  noisy  advance  of  the  Trojans : but  all 
this  seems  to  have  been  of  little  consequence  in  the 
actual  battle.  60.  In  Homer’s  descriptions  scarcely 
any  thing  is  mentioned  except  the  exploits  of  leaders 
and  heroes.  These  generally  fought  in  two-wheeled, 
chariots  (uQtua,  uyea  : also  dupQog — signifying  literally  a 
seat  for  two  persons),  with  two  horses  (di^vysg  Innot) 
and  sometimes  a third  (nuQijOQog ; an  outrigger).  In 
the  chariot  were  two  men  (inning),  a charioteer  and  a 
warrior  (rjrt'o/og  or  rjnoyevg  and  TtuQa^dzrjg).  These  ad- 
vanced as  champions  (nQopiayot)  into  the  space  be- 
tween the  two  armies  ( nollfioio  ylcpvQat),  and  either 
charged  the  enemy  in  their  chariot,  or  began  a single 
combat  on  foot,  first  with  the  spear  and  afterwards 
with  the  sword.  Thus  the  battle  was  decided  in  a 
great  measure  by  the  personal  bravery  of  the  leaders, 
whilst  the  courage  of  their  followers  was  at  the  same 
time  excited  by  their  cheering  shouts  (hence  the  epithet 
(S ofjv  aya&og).  The  infantry  (nQvhleg,  ne^ol)  followed 
in  compact  masses  (nvxival  cpdlayyeg,  orryug,  nvnyog). 
61.  The  spoils  (z a ’ivaQot)  and  the  prisoners  were  de- 
livered up  to  the  leader,  to  be  divided,  after  he  had 
chosen  a portion  for  himself,  and  sometimes  extraordi- 
nary presents  for  the  bravest  of  his  followers.  Those 
who  had  fallen  were  stript  of  their  armour  (ban a @qo- 
zoerza).  A fierce  struggle  often  took  place  for  the  pos- 


88 


MANUAL  OP  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


session  of  the  dead  bodies.  If  they  remained  in  the 
power  of  the  enemy,  permission  was  sometimes  ob- 
tained to  bury  them,  or  they  were  ransomed  by  their 
relations.  Prisoners  also  were  sometimes  ransomed  in 
the  same  manner. 

§ 12.  Camps — Sieges. 

62.  We  do  not  find  in  the  Trojan  war  a siege  con- 
ducted on  scientific  principles.4  Troy  was  fortified, 
and  had  a wall  provided  with  towers  (ay.nonohg,  nohg 
svnvqyog).  The  Greeks  protected  their  camp  with  a 
rampart,  or  a wall  (reiyog,  nvQyot)  with  battlements 
(xqogocu,  enal&tg),  a ditch  in  front  ( zctcpQog ),  and  pali- 
sades (< TAoloneg ).  II.  vii.  327.  434.  In  the  wall  was  a 
gate  (nvlai)  for  the  egress  of  their  chariots.  The 
camp  was  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  ships  (which 
were  hauled  up  on  land)  and  consisted  of  huts  com- 
posed of  earth  or  wood  (xholca).  63.  There  seem  to 
have  been  no  regular  sentinels  or  outposts  (II.  ix.  66. 
vii.  371) ; only  the  disabled  and  unserviceable  were 
stationed  on  the  walls  (11.  xviii.  514.  viii.  517) : nor 
had  they  any  settled  plan  for  sending  out  scouts.  In 
the  10th  book  of  the  Iliad  we  read  of  them  as  em- 
ployed by  both  sides.  The  fate  of  a city  taken  by 
storm  may  be  learnt  from  II.  ix.  591.  Od.  viii.  528. 

\ 

§13.  Navigation — Ships. 

64.  It  would  appear  that  the  Greeks  were  induced 
by  the  natural  advantages  of  their  country,  to  practise 
navigation  at  a very  early  period  ; for  before  the  T ro- 
jan  war,  we  read  of  their  undertaking  the  Argonautic 
expedition.5  The  vessels,  which  conveyed  the  Greeks 

4 In  connection  with  this  point  the  student  will  be  interested  in  an  ar- 
ticle entitled  “ Napoleon  on  the  Capture  of  Troy,”  in  the  Classical  Mu- 
seum, vol.  i.  p.  205. 

5 Respecting  the  Expedition  of  the  Argonauts,  consult  Grote’s  Hist, 
of  Greece,  vol.  i.  pp.  316-348;  Thirlwall's  Hist,  of  Greece,  vol.  i.  pp 
77-79. 


ME  HEROIC  AGE. 


39 


to  Troy  (vijsg  siacu,  svaoeXfioi,  ducpisXiaaal,  y/.acpvQcu,  y.ogm- 
ride g,  novzonoooi,  yvavongcogoi,  yilzo7zdQi]oi),  are  enumer- 
ated in  the  second  book  of  the  Iliad ; but  the  Catalogue 
is  not  to  be  relied  on.  During  the  siege  they  were 
hauled  up  on  land,  and  rested  on  shores  or  wooden 
props  (ignaza).  According  to  the  number  given  in 
Homer’s  Catalogue,  each  ship  contained  from  fifty  to  a 
hundred  and  twenty  men.®  65.  The  most  important 
parts  of  the  vessel  were  azsigt],  the  keel ; nrfiaXiov,  the 
rudder ; "xgia,  the  deck^  (also  the  upright  side  timbers 
on  which  the  deck  rests) ; £i >ya  or  xXfideg,  the  thwarts, 
or  rowers’  benches ; igsr/zog,  the  oar  (in  the  Odyssey 
also  called  xo mrj,  strictly  speaking  the  handle  of  the  oar) ; 
vryvg  ngcoQt],  the  forecastle  or  prow ; vijvg  tzqv/xvi],  the  after- 
part or  stern lazog,  the  mast,  which  was  made  fast  to 
the  fore  and  after  parts  of  the  ship  by  the  stays  (ngo- 
tovoi)  ; iaziov,  the  sail ; only,  the  ropes,  such  as  the 
TznvizrijGUi  and  nslaixaza,  the  vzzsgai,  y.uXoi,  and  rzoSsg. 
Ulysses  builds  a ship,  (Odyssey,  v.  243.)  Homer  does 
not  describe  any  sea-fight,  but  he  mentions  a sort  of 
poles  employed  on  such  occasions  (Evazd  vavfiayu).  We 
read  also  of  broad  vessels  of  burden  ( cpogzldeg  evgeiai). 


§ 14.  Domestic  life  of  the  Greeks. — -Means  of  support. 

— Employments. 

66.  The  most  universal  source  of  wealth  in  the 
heroic  age  was  the  rearing  of  cattle.  Rich  men  are 
called  dvSgsg  noXvftovzai,  noXvgQtjvig,  noXvagvsg,  noXvarfoi. 
But  that  agriculture  was  also  at  a very  early  period  an 
important  pursuit  may  be  gathered  from  the  writings 
of  Hesiod,  as  well  as  from  various  passages  in  Homer, 
particularly  those  in  which  he  uses  similes  derived  from 
husbandry  (II.  xi.  67.  xviii.  540.  560).  For  their 
ploughs  they  employed  oxen  and  mules.  We  read  also 
of  the  cultivation  of  fruit  (especially  the  vine),  and  of 

6 In  ancient  Greece  the  Penteconter  seems  to  have  been  for  a long  pe- 
riod the  usual  vessel  of  war.  Triremes  were  first  built  about  the  year  b 
c.  700,  but  it  was  some  time  before  they  were  in  common  use. 


40 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIdUIUES. 


hunting  and  fishing.  67.  Theii  chief  men,  it  would 
appear,  were  accustomed  to  employ  themselves  in  agri- 
culture, the  breeding  of  cattle,  and  all  sorts  of  labour 
Thus  we  find  Ulysses  himself  preparing  his  bed  and 
building  a vessel.  In  the  same  way  we  see  the  wives 
and  daughters  of  kings  engaged  in  weaving,  sewing, 
and  washing  (as  Helena,  Penelope,  and  Nausicaa). 
The  harder  labour,  however,  was  performed  by  male 
and  female  slaves  (fy-toof*,-,  dfiooiu,  a/xyi'noXoi7),  who  were 
either  born  in  the  country  or  purchased,  and  by  tiroes, 
poor  hired  workmen.  An  important  female  domestic 
was  the  rafurj  or  housekeeper.  68.  The  amusements 
mentioned  were  chess  (among  the  suitors  of  Penelope), 
throwing  the  quoit  and  hunting-spear  (edyavmi)  among 
the  besiegers  of  Troy,  and  various  sorts  of  athletic 
games  among  the  Phseacians.  Similar  sports  were 
practised  at  the  funeral  of  Patroclus  (II.  xxiii.  257.  897), 
such  as  racing,  boxing,  wrestling,  leaping,  fencing, 
throwing  the  quoit  and  lance,  and  archery. 

§ 15.  Arts — Commerce. 

69.  It  is  clear  from  the  poems  of  Homer  that  the 
Greeks  were  acquainted  at  a very  early  period  with 
many  of  the  arts,  which  contribute  to  the  comfort  and 
elegance  of  life.  The  expression  Sij/xiosQyog  compre- 
hends all  those  who  exercised  mechanical  trades  (thus 
excluding  diviners,  physicians,  minstrels,  and  heralds)  ; 
it  is  also  used  for  carpenters  in  Od.  xvii.  383.  xix.  135. 
70.  Among  the  arts  we  must  especially  notice  archi- 
tecture, and  the  working  in  metals,  especially  in  bronze 
or  copper,  ycdy.og ; but  also  in  iron,  gold,  silver,  and  tin, 
(oi'Sijpog,  yovaog,  aoyvoog,  y.aoodzQog),  and  in  yley.roog  (am- 
ber, or,  according  to  some  authorities,  a compound  of 

7 The  dcpairijiv  differed  from  the  slave ; the  term  is  in  fact  often  used 
to  signify  a comrade  in  war  (such  as  Patroclus  was  to  Achilles,  Meriones 

to  Idomeneus,  &c.)  The  word  aviprnrolov  is  used  only  once  (II.  vii.  475) ; 
iovSof  is  never  employed  by  Homer ; and  Sn Xa  only  once  (II.  iii.  409). 
On  festive  occasions  heralds  (nfipvacf)  performed  also  the  duties  of  servants 
to  persons  of  distinction.  There  is  scarcely  any  difference  between  the 
terms  dtid)irro\u$  and  <5/ uojfj.  Compare  14,  note  8. 


THE  HEROIC  AGE. 


41 


gold  and  silver).8  Ornaments  of  ivory  were  also  com- 
mon. 71.  Trade  was  carried  on  at  an  early  period 
with  the  inhabitants  of  Sidon  in  Phoenicia,  who  brought 
them  costly  clothing,  glass  wares,  and  ornaments  or 
toys  (dOvgfutTa).  For  weights  we  have  yovooio  zdlavrov 
and  ijiuTalavTov.  Coined  money  is  not  mentioned  ;9  the 
measure  of  value  being  a certain  number  of  heads  ol 
cattle  (sHUTOfifioiog,  iwsufioiog).  During  the  siege  o! 
Troy  the  Lemnians  brought  wine,  which  they  ex 
changed  with  the  Achseans  for  brass,  iron,  hides,  bul 
locks,  and  slaves  (II.  vii.  467). 

§ 16.  Domestic  affairs — Marriage — Education. 

72.  The  life  of  the  Grecian  women,  as  it  is  pictured 
in  the  Odyssey,  although  domestic,  was  very  different 
from  oriental  seclusion.  The  marriage  tie  was  re- 
spected (Penelope,  Andromache,  Arete  : omu  dv'r,Q  dya- 
■dbg  y.u'i  iyJcpQKtv,  rzjv  uvzov  (uloyor)  qilhi  '/.at.  xfjdEzcu.  II. 
ix.  341.  Od.  vi.  182).  This  also  appears  from  Hector’s 
conversation  with  his  wife  (II.  vi.  407),  and  from  the 
refusal  of  Penelope  to  marry  any  of  the  suitors  (tvvijv 
t ui.Soffrt]  rzoatog  bicoid  te  qf/nr,  Od.  xix.  527).  The 
lawful  wife  was  called  xovgiSaj  dloyog  or  uxomg  (in  con- 
tradistinction to  the  naXXaxideg  or  concubines),  and  the 
children  born  in  wedlock  ynjaiot,  i&aiyevhg,  whilst  the 
others  were  termed  idfior..1  73.  Marriage  was  con- 
tracted from  mutual  affection,  and  with  the  free  consent 
of  the  parents  (Od.  ii.  114.  II.  ix.  364).  The  form 
consisted  in  a sort  of  purchase,  the  bridegroom  making 
presents  (eedru)  to  the  parents  of  the  bride.  We  read 

8 See  Liddell  & Scott,  s.  v.  rj'XeKTpo v,  and  Grote’s  Hist,  of  Greece, \ ol. 
ii.  p.  139,  note. 

9 Pheidon,  ruler  of  Argos  in  the  first  generation  of  the  Olympic  asra, 
seems  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  coined  money,  as  well  as  of  weights 
and  measures.  Compare  Grote’s  Hist,  of  Greece,  vol.  ii.  p.  156. 

1 The  illegitimate  children  were  sometimes  brought  up  at  home.  In 

II.  v.  70,  one  is  mentioned  who  remained  in  the  house  and  was  kindly 
treated  by  the  step-mother.  Telamon  also  educates  his  natural  son  at 
home  ; Priam’s  legitimate  and  illegitimate  children  sit  in  the  same  chariot 

III.  ix.  102). 


42 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


also  of  gifts  from  the  parents  to  their  daughter,  which 
were  returned  to  them  if  the  marriage  was  ever  dis- 
solved. It  was  considered  a blessing  to  have  children. 
Violation  of  any  filial  duty  was  punished  by  the  gods, 
as  we  find  in  the  stories  of  Meleager  and  CEdipus. 
The  children  were  the  natural  heirs ; and  in  default  of 
children  the  nearest  relations  (^Qcoazai).  74.  The  edu- 
cation of  the  higher  ranks  was  not  confined  exclusively 
to  bodily  exercises.  Thus  Peleus,  in  II.  ix.  442,  had 
Achilles  instructed  by  Phcenix  and  taught  fxv&cov  ze 
Q>]zJ{D  e/ievcu  TintjxzrjQa,  ze  eQywv.  The  art  of  healing  was 
also  taught  him  by  Chiron  (II.  xi.  832).  He  sings  and 
plays  on  the  yoQyu /£  (II.  ix.  186). 


§17.  Diet. 

75.  Among  their  prepared  food  is  especially  men- 
tioned wheaten  bread  (ugzog  in  the  Odyssey,  in  other 
passages  clzog,  a term  used  to  express  all  sorts  of 
victuals)  or  barley-bread  (ulcpizci),  cheese  ( zvQog ), 
roasted  flesh  (-/.Qt'ag  onzov)  of  oxen,  sheep,  hogs.  The 
general  name  for  meat,  or  rather  for  every  thing  eaten 
with  bread,  was  oxpov  ( oxpa ),  which  at  a later  period 
was  especially  applied  to  fish,  a diet  little  esteemed,  it 
would  appear,  in  the  heroic  age,  and  never  mentioned 
as  forming  a part  of  the  Homeric  feasts,  which  con- 
cluded with  sacrifices.  Their  drink  was  generally 
wine  mixed  with  water  (neOv  tj8v,  ofoog  fiilag,  eovOoog, 
ai&o\p,  zjdvg,  [xelicpQmv,  tjdvnozog).  They  had  also  a mixed 
drink  called  y.v/.mv.  Their  usual  meals  were  the  uqiozov, 
early  in  the  morning ; and  the  doynov  at  sunset.  76. 
Festivals  were  celebrated  by  a banquet  (8a(g,  elXamvq). 
Such  were  given  on  certain  occasions  by  the  Kings  to 
persons  of  distinction  (Od.  vii.  49.  189),  as  for  instance 
by  Agamemnon  to  the  other  princes  (11.  iv.  259.  ix.  70). 
Before  eating,  water  was  given  to  the  guests  for  their 
hands  (fteyvixp  always  in  acc.).  Each  received  his  ap- 
pointed portion,  a larger  quantity  both  of  water  and 
wine  being  presented  to  the  most  honoured  guest. 


THE  HEROIC  AGE. 


43 


Heralds2  or  public  servants  ( nrtQvy,eg , xovqoi,  oivoyooi) 
poured  the  wine  out  of  the  large  vessels  in  which  it  was 
mixed  with  water  (xo//zv;p),  into  smaller  cups  (Smug, 
HxmelXov,  dm ag  a/jqiiyvneXlov3).  On  festive  occasions 
less  water  was  employed  in  the  mixture.  A complete 
banquet  was  celebrated  with  minstrelsy,  instrumental 
music,4  and  dancing  (II.  i.  603.  Od.  i.  152.  viii.  99). 

§ 18.  Dress. 

77.  The  clothing  of  the  men  consisted  of  an  under 
tunic  (yizmv),  generally  short,  although  we  also  hear  of 
a yuoiv  rsQfiiosig : the  epithets  generally  applied  to  this 
part  of  the  dress  are  launoog,  ivvvqzog,  aiyulong,  vqycc- 
zsog.  When  they  went  out,  a wide  mantle  {cpaQog,  also 
mentioned  as  an  article  of  female  dress)  or  yhuva  (a 
term  applied  only  to  the  woollen  cloak  worn  by  men), 
was  thrown  over  the  tunic.  The  epithets  applied  to  it 
were  avEnoryxEizrjg,  uXslgdvefiog,  ovXq,  cpomxoeaGa,  SmXq,  sx- 
r aSvrj.  The  hair  was  worn  long  ; xagqxopioavzEg  ’Dyaioi'.5 

Their  feet  were  protected  by  leathern  soles  (nibila, 
vnoSiyAUTa),  which  were  bound  under  the  foot,  when 
they  went  out.  78.  The  women  wore  the  nmXog,  a 
wide  garment  in  which  the  body  was  enveloped  (sarog, 
noixiXog).  Their  clothes  were  bound  together  with  a 
girdle,  {yah],  yqvan'q) , and  fastened  with  neQorui 

and  ivszal.  Their  head-dresses  were  the  y.o>]8e/ivov,  a 
sort  of  head-band  or  veil,  and  the  yuXvnzQq.  To  the 
female  dress  belong  the  tQfiaza,  ear-rings  (zoi'yXqvu, 
fiOQoerza),  necklaces  ( oq/zoi ),  armlets  (elixeg),  &c. 

2 See  67,  note  1 . 

3 A costly  goblet  of  superior  workmanship  is  called  a\aoov,  a more 

simple  one  and  kktitv/Sioi/. 

4 Of  musical  instruments  we  meet  with  the  KiBapif,  rf,6pjjiy$,  aSXo's,  and 
trupiy£.  The  XSp?;  is  also  mentioned  in  Horn.  Hymn.  Merc.  423. 

5 Long  and  well-dressed  hair  was  generally  considered  an  ornament. 
Hence  the  epithet  eiiirMKapos  applied  to  Eos,  Artemis,  and  the  Nymphs 
$av96s  to  Demeter,  Achilles,  Ulysses,  Rhadamanthus,  Menelaus,  and 
M>  leager. 


44 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


§ 19.  Houses. 

79.  The  residences  of  men  of  rank  were  called 
[isyaqa  (a  term  used  also  to  express  single  rooms), 
86/101,  and  Sm/xctta.  The  whole  building  was  surrounded 
by  a wall  (r oTyog,  fysog,  tQxtov),  through  a gate  in  which 
(nvXai,  &vQ(u  8r/.Xi8eg)  visitors  entered  into  a spacious 
court  ( avlr/ ).  On  the  inside  of  the  wall  was  a corridor 
aiOovoa).  There  was  also  a similar  al'&owa  in  front 
of  the  house,  the  middle  of  which  was  called  TTQoSo/xog. 
In  it  was  the  uqo&vqov,  or  front-door  (it  signifies  also 
the  space  immediately  in  front  of  the  house).  The 
front  room,  which  was  also  the  largest,  was  called 
8m/ia  ( 86/tog  or  /v-jkqov  also).  80.  There  were  also  side 
apartments  (duXa/ioi,  ofooi).  Sometimes  we  hear  of  an 
upper  story  (vtzeqooiov),  where  Penelope  lived  in  the 
palace  of  Ulysses.  Among  the  larger  and  more  ele- 
gant houses  we  find  the  house  of  Menelaus,  mentioned 
in  Od.  iv.  44.  4G ; that  of  the  Phseacian  king  Alcinous 
(Od.  vii.  85.  101),  and  that  of  Priam  (II.  vi.  242) ; but 
the  loose  and  indefinite  manner  in  which  houses  and 
apartments  are  generally  mentioned  by  Homer,  renders 
it  very  difficult  to  form  a correct  notion  of  their  several 
parts. 


§ 20.  Furniture. 

81.  The  articles  of  furniture  most  frequently  men- 
tioned, are  &qovoi,  raised  seats,  with  a footstool  (ftQrjvvg) 
and  cushions  ( runr/reg , y.ata,  Qi/ysu,  ylaivat),  other  seats 
or  benches  ( -/.Xia/iog  and  y.Xioin),  chairs  (S(rpQog),  tables 
( rQune'Cu ),  tripods  (Tninovg),  which  were  often  given  as 
rewards  for  victory,  or  presents,  (as  were  also  caldrons 
or  basins,  (Iffas),  beds  (Xtyog,  dt-'/jnov,  Xsxtqov),  with  their 
furniture  or  bed-covers  (/>i}yog).  consisting  of  skins  or 
fleeces  (xw as,  to),  and  sheets  (Xiroio  Itmhv  cioozov,  II.  ix. 
681.)  In  the  houses  we  find  warm  baths  ((OeQ/tu  XoerQu), 
with  bathing-tubs  (uou/nt  Oog,  /;). 


SPARTA. 


45 


SPARTA  (a  Ztu/.qtu). 

CHOROGRAP  HY. 

§ 1.  The  Country. 

82.  Auxtavwq  or  Aaxsbulyt ov  is  a mountainous  coun- 
try, divided  through  its  whole  extent  from  north  to 
south,  by  two  branches  of  the  Arcadian  chain,  TaygS- 
tus,  the  western,  which  is  very  lofty,  and  Parnon,  the 
eastern.  Between  these  two  chains  lies  an  extensive 
valley  (xolXy,  stuxsdulycov,  II.  ii.  581),  watered  by  the 
Eurotas,  a river  which  rises  in  the  north  on  the  borders 
of  Arcadia,  and  discharges  itself  into  the  Laconic  gulf. 
The  eastern  chain  terminates  in  the  promontory  of 
Malea  (or  Malea),  the  western  in  Tsenarus  or  Tasna- 
rum.  The  valley  of  the  Eurotas  is  narrow  towards 
the  north,  but  becomes  wider  towards  the  south,  and 
contains  some  fruitful  spots.  The  strip  of  land  which 
runs  along  the  coast  on  the  other  side  of  the  mountains 
has  also  some  valleys  which  admit  of  cultivation.  The 
country  is  fortified  by  nature ; high  mountain  tracts, 
with  few  and  narrow  passes,  rendering  invasion  very 
difficult.6 


§ 2.  The  Capital. 

83.  The  capital  of  this  country  was  Zndqxa  or 
Aay.sSaluav,  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Eurotas. 
Among  the  public  buildings  of  the  city  were  the 
nsQcnxrj,  a colonnade  built  from  the  Persian  spoils  ; the 
Zxidg,  in  after  times  a place  of  meeting  for  the  people  ; 


6 The  greater  part  of  Messenia  belonged  to  the  empire  of  the  Atridae  ; 
but  was  separated  from  it  at  the  Dork  immigration.  Subsequently  it  was 
re-conquered  by  the  Spartans,  who  held  it  until  the  battle  of  Leuctra, 
when  it  was  enfranchised  by  the  Thebans.  Between  Laconia  and  Argo- 
lis  lay  the  district  of  Cynuria,  the  inhabitants  of  which  are  mentioned  by 
Herodotus  as  Autochthones  of  Ionic  descent,  wTho  were  doricized  by  the 
Argives.  This  district  was  a perpetual  bone  of  contention  between  the 
Lacedaemonians  and  Argives,  until  it  was  subdued  by  the  former,  b.  c.  550. 


46 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


and  several  Atcyai.  The  principal  open  places  were 
the  Xooog,  where  warlike  dances  were  performed  ; and 
the  Aq6[xo$  and  riXaranarag,  two  exercise-grounds. 
The  largest  Temple  was  that  of  Athene  (nohavyog. 
Dor.  nohdoyog,  yab/.ioiy.og)  on  the  Acropolis.  84.  Lace- 
daemon was  divided  into  xcSjuat  or  cpviuf,  of  which  the 
names  of  four  are  known  to  us,  viz.,  Pitana,  Limnae, 
Mesoa,  and  Cynosura.  Some  writers  add  a fifth,  Dyme 


HISTORICAL  OUTLINE. 

§ 1.  Ancient  history. 

85.  The  most  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  land  were 
the  Pelasgi  and  Leleges.  At  the  period  of  the  Trojan 
war  we  find  the  Achaeans  mentioned  as  the  most 
powerful  people,  and  the  family  of  the  Atrldse  as  being 
in  possession  of  part  of  Argolis  and  all  Lacedaemon. 
The  greater  part  of  Messenia  belonged  also  to  this 
empire.  86.  Eighty  years  after  the  Trojan  war  (b.  c. 
1104)  the  Doric  race,  whose  original  settlement  is  said 
to  have  been  in  Thessaly,  invaded  the  Peloponnesus 
under  the  command  of  the  Heraclidae,  and  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  iEtolians,  and  made  themselves  masters 
of  a great  part  of  the  peninsula.i * * * * * 7  87.  The  em- 
pire of  the  Atridas  was  divided  among  their  Heraclian 
leaders,  of  whom  Temenus  received  Argos;  Cres- 
phontes,  Messenia ; and  the  sons  of  Aristodemus,  Pro- 

i When  the  Dorians  invaded  the  Peloponnesus,  the  only  Pelasgic 
tribe  remaining  was  that  of  the  Arcadians,  who  long  retained  their  in- 

dependence. At  Corinth  the  Sisyphidae  were  the  rulers,  in  southern  Ells 
the  Nelidse  (both  of  TEolian  extraction)  ; in  northern  Elis,  the  Epeans, 
and  in  iEgialos  the  Ionians.  With  the  exception  of  Argos,  Lacedtemon 

and  Messenia,  the  Dorians  by  degrees  made  themselves  masters  of  the 
rest  of  Argolis,  Corinth,  Sicyon  and  Phlius  (also  of  Megaris  and  iEglna). 

Thus  the  greater  part  of  the  Peloponnesus  was  in  the  power  of  the  Do- 
rians, and  northern  Elis  in  that  of  the  iEtolians.  Here  and  there  we 

find  more  ancient  tribes,  such  as  the  Cynurians  (of  Ionic  race)  between 

Laconia  and  Argolis ; the  Dry  opes  in  Argolis,  Minyans,  from  Lemnos, 

in  Triphylia,  &c.  See  Thirlwall’s  Hist,  of  Greece,  vol.  i.  p.  110—124. 


SPARTA. 


47 


cles  and  Eurysthenes,  Laconia,  where  by  degrees  they 
subjugated  the  ancient  inhabitants,  who  were  either 
made  tributary  and  robbed  of  their  rights  as  citizens, 
(Periceci,  Lacedaemonians,  in  the  more  confined  sense 
of  the  word,  96  note),  or  perhaps,  in  case  of  obstinate 
resistance  or  insurrection,  were  even  deprived  of  free- 
dom altogether  (Helotes).  In  Lacedaemon  the  Doric 
race  displayed  its  peculiar  character  in  the  great  inde- 
pendence of  the  people  and  their  freedom  from  foreign 
influence. 


§ 2.  Administration  of  Lycurgus. 

88.  We  know  very  little  of  the  Lacedaemonian 
commonwealth  during  the  times  which  immediately 
succeeded  the  Doric  immigration.  At  a very  early 
period  it  seems  to  have  been  the  theatre  of  contentions 
between  the  kings  and  people.  Lycurgus  however 
(about  the  year  b.  c.  884)  re-established  order  by 
creating  or  (to  speak  more  correctly)  shaping  and 
strengthening  out  of  elements  which  already  existed,  a 
constitution,  built  upon  the  solid  foundation  of  heredi- 
tary custom  and  precedent.  This  form  of  govern- 
ment, whilst  it  permitted  to  the  citizens  the  right  of 
laboring  for  their  own  support,  at  the  same  time 
strictly  enforced  the  subjection  of  the  individual  to  the 
commonwealth ; man’s  whole  existence  was  to  be  cir- 
cumscribed within  the  limits  of  the  citizen’s  political 
life  ; foreign  influence  to  be  excluded ; and  the  founda- 
tion of  independence,  moderation,  and  political  union, 
to  be  laid  in  stricty  defined  and  unchangeable  regula- 
tions. In  some  particulars  the  institutions  of  Lycurgus 
resembled  the  ancient  forms  of  government  in  the 
heroic  ages. 


§ 3.  The  rise  of  Lacedcemon — Hegemony . 

89.  The  effect  of  the  warlike  spirit  developed  by 
such  a constitution,  and  of  strength  thus  concentrated, 
was  first  displayed  in  the  subjugation  of  the  remnant 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


of  Achaean  inhabitants,  in  the  conquest  of  Messenia,8 
and  in  successful  wars  with  the  Arcadians  and  Ar- 
gives.  At  a later  period  the  Spartans  gradually  ex- 
tended their  influence  over  almost  the  whole  of  the 
Peloponnesus,  mingling  in  all  the  affairs  of  the  neigh- 
bouring states,  and  especially  strengthening  their  in- 
terest by  the  protection  which  they  afforded  to  the 
aristocracy  against  tyranny  on  one  side,  and  demo- 
cracy on  the  other.  90.  This  leadership,  or  Hegemony, 
which  was  at  first  confined  to  the  Peloponnesus,  ex- 
tended itself  after  the  Persian  war  to  the  whole  of 
Greece  and  the  colonies,  but  found  a powerful  oppo- 
nent in  Athens.  That  state,  it  is  true,  was  over- 
thrown in  the  Peloponnesian  war  (b.  c.  431 — 404) ; 
but  Sparta  soon  lost  the  fruits  of  her  victory  through 
her  own  overbearing  and  selfish  policy,  and  the  sup- 
port which  she  always  gave  to  the  most  hateful 
oligarchy,  wherever  it  was  to  be  found.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  conduct,  not  only  Athens,  but  -for  a 
short  time  even  Thebes,  again  opposed  her  with 
success. 


§ 4.  Decline  of  Lacedcemon. 

91.  During  the  occurrence  of  these  events  the 
Spartan  constitution  had  gradually  been  departing 
from  its  original  character.  Somewhat  more  than  a 
hundred  years  after  the  time  of  Lycurgus,  an  important 
alteration  was  made  by  the  establishment  of  the  Ephori, 
who  were  enabled  to  give  a constitutional  support  to 
the  people,  and  soon  (partly  through  the  degeneracy 
of  the  royal  families)  became  more  powerful  than  the 
kings  themselves.  The  constitution  of  Lycurgus  was 
in  fact  suited  only  to  a small  state  and  a people  of  cir- 
cumscribed views,  who  were  firmly  attached  to  the 
existing  and  traditional  state  of  things.  It  imposed  un- 
natural fetters  on  the  free  will  and  development  of  in- 


• The  first  war  was  from  b.  c.  743  to  723  ; the  second  b,  c.  685 — • 
668,  according  to  Pausanias. 


SPARTA. 


49 


dividuals,  and  consequently  was  shaken  to  its  founda- 
tion, as  soon  as  the  acquaintance  with  foreign  countries, 
which  was  the  natural  result  of  wars,  especially  of 
maritime  wars,  taught  the  people  to  enlarge  their  poli- 
tical horizon.  The  consequence  of  this  was  the  gradual 
dissolution  of  all  the  bands  which  united  the  citizen  to 
the  state,  and  the  triumph  of  unlimited  selfishness. 
92.  In  proportion  as  the  state  itself,  in  opposition  to 
the  views  of  Lycurgus,  sought  an  increase  of  dominion 
and  subsequently  of  wealth,  did  the  lust  of  power  and 
yearning  after  riches  take  possession  of  the  people. 
Even  the  Kings  and  Ephori,  as  well  as  the  members 
of  the  Senate,  were  pre-eminently  open  to  bribery. 
Thus  the  form  of  government,  partly  through  the  de- 
crease in  the  number  of  burghers  (occasioned  princi- 
pally by  their  wars),  and  partly  through  the  distribution 
of  property  which  gradually  became  more  unequal,  and 
the  increasing  mass  of  inhabitants,  who,  although  free, 
had  no  voice  in  the  state,  was  transformed  into  an  op- 
pressive oligarchy. 

§ 5.  Fall  of  the  Spartan  Commonwealth. 

93.  In  this  manner  the  Spartan  Commonwealth 
gradually  crumbled  away,  never  regaining  its  full 
power,  although  it  sometimes  even  yet  played  an  im- 
portant part.  - The  attempt  of  Agis  III.  (b.  c.  240)  to 
restore  the  ancient  order  of  things  by  a new  division 
of  land  and  the  introduction  of  fresh  burghers,  com- 
pletely miscarried.  Cleomenes  III.  (b.  c.  226)  was  for 
a time  more  successful : for  he  abolished  the  Ephorate, 
and  endeavoured  to  re-establish  equality  among  the 
citizens,  and  restore  the  spirit  of  the  Lycurgian  con- 
stitution ; but  his  projects  were  eventually  overthrown 
by  the  Macedonians.  At  length  the  Romans  interfered 
in  the  struggle  between  the  Spartans  and  Achaeans, 
and  made  themselves  masters  of  the  Peloponnesus 
(b.  c.  146),  permitting  however  a certain  measure  of 
freedom  to  Sparta.  Even  the  institutions  of  Lycurgus 
retained  in  some  degree  their  form  until  the  fifth  cen- 
tury of  the  Christian  era. 

3 


50 


MANUAL  OF  GEECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


INHABITANTS  OF  LACEDAEMON. 

§ 1.  Spartans. 

94.  The  inhabitants  of  Laconia  were  either  free 
men  or  slaves.  The  former  consisted  partly  of  Spar 
tiates,  partly  of  Perioeci,  Mothaces,  Nothi,  Neodamodes, 
and  foreigners.  The  Spartiates  (ZnaQuarai),  descend- 
ed as  they  were  from  the  original  Dorian  settlers,  and 
themselves  the  dominant  race,  secured  by  the  posses- 
sion of  landed  property,  exempted  from  the  labour  of 
agriculture,  mechanical  trades,  and  other  burgher-like 
employments,  with  characters  formed  by  the  public 
education  which  the  law  prescribed,  and  by  their  con- 
tinued intercourse  with  the  other  citizens,  were  the 
sole  possessors  of  full  political  rights,  and  were  all 
placed  by  the  constitution  on  the  same  footing  (o/rotoi 
in  Xenoph.  and  Demosth.)  95.  We  find  in  Sparta,  as 
in  all  the  Doric  states,  three  q ivlai — viz.  'Tllelg,  Jvuureg 
and  Huurfvlot9,  which,  according  to  the  legend,  derived 
their  names  from  Heracleid  princes,  but  nevertheless 
seem  to  indicate  the  three  races,  from  the  amalgama- 
tion of  which  the  Doric  people  were  formed.  The 
tribe  'Tllng,  into  which  the  Heraciidae  were  admit- 
ted, had  the  first  rank.  The  three  principal  tribes 
were  divided  into  thirty  c ofiuL  Admission  to  the  rights 
of  Spartan  citizenship  was  not  common  until  the  time 
of  Agis  III.  and  Cleomenes  III.,  who  conferred  the 
distinction  on  many  of  the  Perked.  On  the  other 
hand,  from  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian  war  we  find 
a steadily  increasing  class  of  free  inhabitants  without 
active  political  privileges. 

* In  some  states  we  find  £ fourth  tribe,  probably  a rermant  of  the 
original  inhabitants. 


I 


SPARTA. 


51 


§ 2.  Free  inhabitants,  who  were  excluded  by  birth  from 
the  rights  of  citizenship. 

98.  The  Periceci  (neoiorAot)  or  Lacedaemonians1 
(inhabitants  of  the  country  as  distinguished  from  the 
Spartiates  or  inhabitants  of  the  city),  the  descendants 
of  the  ancient  inhabitants,  were  for  the  most  part  of 
Achaean  origin.  They  possessed,  it  is  true,  personal 
freedom  and  landed  property,  and  seem  ever  to 
have  been  allowed  a special  administration  for  the 
management  of  their  commercial  affairs  : but  they  paid 
tribute,  rendered  military  service,  were  excluded  from 
all  positive  political  rights,  such  as  a voice  in  public 
affairs,  the  magistracy,  and  intermarriage  with  citizens  ; 
and  were  consequently  in  a position  extraneous  to  the 
state,  like  the  socii  of  the  Romans.  After  the  conquest 
of  Messenia  we  find  mention  of  100  cities  inhabited  by 
Perioeci.  In  addition  to  agriculture  they  employed 
themselves  in  handicraft  and  trade,  and  do  not  seem, 
generally  speaking,  to  have  been  in  indigent  circum- 
stances. 97.  The  Mothaces2  (yo&axes — to  be  distin- 
guished from  i wdcovsg , slaves  born  and  educated  in  the 
house,  vernce),  appear  to  have  been  the  sons  of  foreign- 
ers, here  and  there  perhaps  of  Helots,  who  were  edu- 
cated with  the  children  of  the  Spartiates.  They  were 
by  no  means  considered  as  citizens,  unless,  like  Lysan- 
der,  they  obtained  that  distinction  by  merit;  which 
seems  to  have  happened  especially  in  the  case  of  those 
who  were  also  called  Nothi  (yo&ot)  ; these  were  the 
sons  of  a Spartiate,  either  by  a foreign  or  a female 
Helot,  and  might  become  citizens  by  adoption.  98. 
The  Neodamodes  (ysoduymdeig)  were  emancipated 
slaves  or  PXelots.  In  the  Peloponnesian  war,  for  in- 

1 This  word  in  its  more  extensive  significations  is  used  as  a common 
name  for  Perioeci  and  Spartiates. 

2 The  Laconian  word  [Maxes  is  rendered  by  some  writers  or 

rpo^Ljioi . Muller  (as  quoted  by  Liddell  and  Scott,  s.  v.  [indoiv)  says  that 
the  f<(S 9o>ves  and  / xodaxes  were  children  of  Helots,  brought  up  as  foster 
brothers  of  the  young  Spartans,  and  eventually  emancipated,  but  usually 
without  acquiring  civic  rights.  See  also  Smith’s  Diet,  of  Gk.  and  Rom. 
Antiq.  article  Ilelotes. 


52 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES, 


stance,  Helots  were  employed  as  heavy-armed  soldiers, 
with  the  promise  of  freedom ; and  in  later  times,  this 
mode  of  supplying  the  want  of  Hoplites  was  so  often 
resorted  to,  that  the  armies  of  Sparta  consisted  in  a 
great  measure  of  such  Neodamodes.  We  find  frequent 
-mention  also  of  foreigners  at  Sparta,  especially  in  later 
times. 

§ 3.  Helots. 

99.  The  Spartan  bondsmen  or  Helots  (Eilwreg3) 
were  probably  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  country,  who 
had  been  punished  for  their  obstinate  resistance,  or  for 
subsequent  insurrections,  by  being  made  either  public 
slaves  (Sovloi  rov  xoivov),  or  assigned  to  individuals  with 
the  portion  of  land  allotted  to  each  citizen.  In  the 
latter  case,  however,  it  was  not  lawful  for  their  mas- 
ters either  to  put  them  to  death  or  to  emancipate  them ; 
nor,  generally,  speaking,  could  they  be  sold  without  the 
land.  100.  In  the  prosperous  days  of  the  common- 
wealth their  number  exceeded  200,000.  In  time  of 
peace  they  cultivated  the  estates  of  their  lords : to 
whom  they  were  obliged  to  deliver  yearly  a certain 
quantity  of  produce  (d^orpo^d4),  the  overplus  being  re- 
served for  their  own  use.  They  were  also  employed 
in  every  sort  of  mechanical  trade,  as  well  as  other 
services  in  town  as  well  as  country.  In  war  they 
attended  their  masters  as  light-armed  soldiers  (xpdol) 
and  yeomen,  and  in  later  times  were  especially  em- 
ployed in  the  service  of  the  navy. 

§ 4.  Condition  of  the  Helots. 

101.  The  condition  of  the  Helots  was,  generally 
speaking,  a hard  one ; retaining,  as  they  did,  the  con- 

3 Some  derive  the  word  from  "EAuj,  a city  which  offered  an  obstinate 
resistance  to  the  Dorians,  or  from  s'Aoj,  a wet,  low  district ; a more  pro- 
bable deriviation,  however,  seems  to  be  from  the  verb  eXcTe.  It  has  been 
also  supposed  that  the  Helots  were  a race  which  had  been  subdued  before 
the  invasion  of  the  Dorians,  and  were  found  by  them  in  slavery.  See 
Thirlwall’s  Hist,  of  Greece,  vol,  i,  p.  129,  130. 

4 Seventy  medimni  of  barley  for  a man,  twelve  for  a woman,  with  a 
proportionate  quantity  of  oil  and  wine. 


SPARTA. 


53 


sciousness  of  being  oppressed,  they  naturally  incurred 
the  suspicion  of  the  Spartiates,  especially  when  the 
number  of  free  citizens  began  rapidly  to  decrease. 
One  way  of  diminishing  their  numbers,  and  keeping  a 
watchful  eye  over  them,  was  the  so-called  secret  war 
(y.QV7TT£M5).  By  the  constitution  of  Lycurgus,  accord- 
ing to  some  writers,  the  young  Spartans  were  per- 
mitted at  certain  seasons  to  traverse  the  country  by 
night  and  put  to  death  any  Helots,  whom  they  hap- 
pened to  meet.  102.  We  may,  or  perhaps,  must 
suppose,  however,  that  the  object  of  such  a practice,  at 
its  original  institution,  was  simply  to  inure  the  young 
Spartan  to  the  hardships  of  war,  and  promote  a vigi- 
lant superintendence  of  the  Helots;  and  that  the  hor- 
rors of  which  we  read,  were  the  result  of  subsequent 
abuses.  During  the  Peloponnesian  war  extraordinary 
and  atrocious  measures  seem  so  have  been  adopted  for 
the  purpose  of  removing  2000  of  these  unfortunate 
persons.  Yet  the  door  of  freedom  was  not  entirely 
closed  against  them  (98)  ; and  we  find  that  in  later 
times  they  Were  emancipated  by  thousands. 

§ 5.  Partition  of  the  Land  among  the  free  inhabitants. 

103.  Originally  there  seems  to  have  been  no  essen- 
tial distinction,  as  regarded  privileges  or  the  possession 
of  landed  property,  between  the  citizens  of  Lacedae- 
mon. A fresh,  or  at  least  a different,  division  of  pro- 
perty took  place  under  Lycurgus,  and  another  after  the 
conquest  of  Messenia,  when  the  lots  (yJagoi)  assigned 
to  the  Perioeci  were  fixed  at  30,000,  and  those  of  the 
Spartiates  or  citizens  at  9000.  These  lots,  which  were 
nearly  of  equal  value,  could  neither  be  divided  nor 
alienated,  but  must  descend  to  one  heir,  who  was 
charged  with  the  support  of  the  other  members  of  his 
family.  104.  But  this  very  arrangement  by  degrees 
produced  great  inequality,  since  some  individuals  were 
reduced  to  poverty  by  the  claims  of  a large  family 

* See  Thirlwall’s  Hist,  of  Greece,  vol.  i.  p.  130. 


54 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


whilst  others  became  possessors  of  several  lots  by  in- 
heritance. The  means  devised  to  remove  this  ine- 
quality were  the  granting  permission  to  several  brothers 
to  marry  one  wife ; or  adoption,  and,  to  a certain  ex- 
tent, the  law  which  regulated  the  marriage  of  heiresses 
{tmnapaiidss) ; or  the  sending  out  of  colonies  : but  such 
measures  were  gradually  discovered  to  be  inadequate 
to  the  end  proposed ; especially  when  the  great  earth- 
quake in  b.  c.  466,  the  insurrection  of  the  Helots  which 
immediately  followed,  and  subsequently  the  Pelopon- 
nesian war,  had  cost  many  Spartiates  their  lives. 
105.  The  inequality  was  yet  further  increased  by  a law 
of  the  Ephor  Epitadeus  (date  unknown,  but  later  than 
Lysander),  which  permitted,  not  indeed  the  sale,  but 
the  disposition  or  bequeathing  by  will  of  the  lots.  We 
find  indeed  the  number  of  citizens  gradually  diminish- 
ing in  so  extraordinary  a manner,  and  the  inequality 
of  property  so  inci’easing,  that  in  the  time  of  Agis  III. 
there  were  but  700  citizens,  and  of  these  only  100 
were  landowners. 

§ 6.  Consequences  of  the  gradual  decrease  in  the  num- 
ber of  citizens,  and  the  inequality  of  property. 

106.  This  inequality  of  property  produced  by  de- 
grees great  inequality  of  political  rights,  and  at  last 
gave  birth  to  an  oligarchy ; since  by  the  constitution 
of  Lycurgus  the  complete  exercise  of  such  rights  was 
closely  connected  with  Spartan  education,  and  with 
the  capability  of  sharing  the  Spartan  mode  of  life.  We 
may  especially  notice  here  the  difference  mentioned  by 
Xenophon  between  the  ofioioi  and  the  vnotmoveg ; the 
former  being  citizens  who  enjoyed  full  political  rights, 
the  latter  those,  it  would  appear,  who,  as  persons  of 
Spartan  descent,  were  not  excluded  by  their  birth  from 
the  same  privileges,  but  for  want  of  property  could 
take  no  part  in  Spartan  education,  or  were  compelled 
to  earn  their  livelihood  by  some  handicraft  or  other 
trade,  or  were  too  poor  to  bear  their  share  of  expense 
at  the  public  table. 


SPAKTA. 


55 


THE  GOVERNMENT. 

§ 1.  Partition  of  the  Government. 

107.  At  an  early  period  disputes  arose  between  the 
people  and  the  kingly  authority,  which  had  been  origin- 
ally divided  between  the  two  Heracleid  families.  These 
disputes  led  to  the  constitution  introduced  by  Lycurgus, 
which  was  founded  on  the  principle  of  developing  ex- 
isting relations,  without  the  publication  of  a complete 
code  of  written  lav/s  ; for  the  few' legal  maxims  (oijTQut) 
which  we  attribute  to  Lycurgus,  seem  to  have  refer- 
ence simply  to  certain  rights  which  were  the  subject  of 
dispute  between  the  different  powers  of  the  state. 
108.  By  them  the  authority  was  divided  between  the 
Senate,  the  Assembly  of  the  people,  and  the  magistrates, 
of  whom  the  Kings  alone  had  any  political  importance 
at  first,  although  their  power  was  afterwards  obscured 
by  a magistracy  of  more  recent  institution — the  Eph- 
orate.  The  Kings,  the  Ephori,  and  the  Senate  together, 
seem  to  have  composed  the  government  or  supreme 
administration,  which  authors  comprehend  under  the 
term  to.  rthj.  109.  In  one  point  of  view  the  constitu- 
tion of  Sparta  may  be  called  democratic  ; but  since  the 
Demos,  properly  so  called  ( da;io ^),  or  Assembly  of  citi- 
zens who  possessed  complete  political  rights,  was  only 
a small  and  steadily  diminishing  section,  as  compared 
with  the  free  inhabitants  who  had  no  voice  in  public 
affairs  (the  Perioeci,  Mothaces,  Neodamodes,  98,  For- 
eigners, and  Hypomeiones,  106),  it  may,  when  thus 
considered,  be  called  aristocratic,  and  even,  in  its  later 
stages,  oligarchical.6 

6 The  Spartan  government  was,  in  substance,  a close,  unscrupulous, 
and  well-obeyed  oligarchy — including  within  it,  as  subordinate,  those  por- 
tions which  had  once  been  dominant,  the  Kings  and  the  Senate,  and 
softening  the  odium,  without  abating  the  mischief,  ctf  the  system,  by  its 
annual  change  of  the  ruling  ephors. — Grote’s  Hist,  of  Greece,  vol.  ii.  p. 
476. 


I 


56 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIUUITIES. 


§ 2.  The  Senate. 

110.  The  Senate  (ysnovtjiu,  Lacon.  ysQcoala)  con- 
sisted,  besides  the  two  Kings,  of  twenty-eight  mem- 
bers, who  were  chosen  for  life  by  popular  acclamation 
(flo/j),  and  must  be  above  sixty  years  of  age,  and  of 
irreproachable  character.  They  were  irresponsible. 
As  the  influence  of  the  Ephori  increased,  those  magis- 
trates gradually  usurped  the  right  of  sharing  their  de- 
liberations and  presiding  at  their  meetings.  111.  The 
business  of  the  Senate  was  to  transact  all  affairs  of 
state,  either  publicly  in  the  popular  assembly,  or  pri- 
vately in  conjunction  with  the  Ephori,  and  also  to  sit 
in  judgment  on  capital  crimes  committed  by  the  citi- 
zens, and  the  offences  of  their  Kings.  The  advanced 
age  of  the  senators  was  believed  to  be  a security  for 
the  conservative  tendency  of  the  constitution. 

§ 3.  The  Popular  Assembly. 

112.  The  Popular  Assembly  (called  in  the  Doric 
dialect,  alia)  was  held  (according  to  a Rhetra,  pre- 
served by  Plutarch,  Lucurg.  c.  6)  at  stated  periods  and 
on  a particular  spot.  It  possessed  the  sovereign  right 
of  electing  the  great  officers  of  the  commonwealth,  the 
Senate,  and  doubtless  the  Ephori ; and  of  entertaining 
the  most  important  state  questions,  which  were  brought 
before  it  by  the  government,  strictly  so  called  (r«  zeXrj), 
or  by  the  Senate  in  concert  with  the  Kings  and  Ephori, 
whose  general  meetings  were  held  publicly  in  the  As- 
sembly. 113.  But  the  people’s  share  in  these  discus- 
sions, as  in  the  heroic  ages,  was  of  a somewhat  passive 
character.  They  did  not  possess  the  power  of  origin- 
ating any  measure,  nor  even  of  proposing  a modification 
of  the  plans  laid  before  them : so  limited  indeed  was 
their  authority,  that  when  in  ancient  times  they  were 
thought  to  have  exceeded  their  powers,  a law  was 
passed  (in  the  reign  of  Theopompus  and  Polydorus, 
rather  more  than  a hundred  years  after  the  time  of 
Lycurgus),  authorizing  the  Senate  and  Kings  (ngeo- 


SPARTA. 


67 


fivyereag  y.ul  tiQ/ciyszat)  to  pronounce  such  a decision  null 
and  void.  The  government  seems  also  to  have  pos- 
sessed a discretionary  power  of  communicating  or 
withholding  information.  114.  The  object  in  fact  of 
the  people's  attendance  appears  to  have  been,  partly 
that  they  might  hear  the  decisions  of  the  government, 
and  partly  that  in  the  event  of  any  difference  of  opinion 
(between  the  Senate  and  Ephori  for  instance),  the 
question  might  be  submitted  to  them  and  be  settled  by 
their  authority.  The  Assembly  possessed  no  judicial 
powers.  The  regular  mode  of  expressing  their  opinion 
was  not  by  voting,  but  by  acclamation.  The  division 
suggested  by  the  Ephor  Sthenelaidas  (Thucyd.  i.  87), 
because  he  could  not  distinguish  which  side  had  the 
majority  of  voices,  must  be  considered  an  exception  to 
the  general  rule.  Every  Spartiate  was  entitled  to  be 
present  at  the  Assembly,  provided  he  had  completed 
his  thirtieth  year,  and  was  in  possession  of  full  political 
privileges. 


§4.  Magistrates— The  Kings. 

\ 

115.  Notwithstanding  their  name,  the  Lacedaemo- 
nian Kings  can  hardly  be  considered  a distinct  power 
in  the  state ; for  their  political  importance,  especially 
in  time  of  peace,  was  of  a very  limited  character. 
Both  the  Kings  (ficaultig,  also  doyayezai  in  the  old  Rhe* 
trai)  were  of  the  two  Heracleid  families — the  Agldae 
and  Eurypontidae.  The  succession  was  hereditary, 
preference  being  given  to  a son  born  during  the  reign 
of  his  father  over  those  who  were  born  before  he  as- 
cended the  throne : if  there  were  no  sons,  the  next  of 
kin  succeeded,  but  in  no  case  a member  of  the  other 
royal  house.  If  the  King  were  a minor,  guardians 
(fTQodiy.oi)  were  chosen  from  his  nearest  relations. 
116.  The  Kings  were  members  of  the  Senate,  where 
they  presided,  but  had  no  votes  like  the  other  members  : 
they  acted  as  judges  in  certain  family  affairs,  as  adop- 
tion, disputed  succession,  and  the  marriage  of  heiresses  ; 
overlooked  the  arrangement  of  the  public  streets,  su- 

3* 


58 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


perintended  the  public  sacrifices,  particularly  the  wor- 
ship of  Zeus,  and  maintained  the  connection  of  the 
state  with  the  Delphic  oracle,  the  national  sanctuary  of 
the  Dorians.  117.  In  war,  and  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
country,  they  took  command  of  the  army,  with  very 
extended  powers : at  first  both  acted  as  leaders ; but 
subsequently  only  one  : and  we  even  find,  in  later  times, 
that  the  command  was  intrusted  to  other  individuals. 
When  the  war  was  ended,  they  might  be  called  to  ac- 
count for  the  manner  in  which  they  had  discharged 
their  duty.  Every  month  they  were  required  to  swear, 
that  they  would  govern  according  to  the  laws ; the 
Ephori  in  the  name  of  the  people  also  swearing,  that 
they  would  maintain  the  sovereign  power  inviolate. 
Their  authority  in  time  of  war  was  gradually  circum- 
scribed, especially  by  the  growing  power  of  the  Ephori. 
118.  For  their  maintenance  they  had  property  in  the 
country  of  the  Periceci,  a part  of  all  the  sacrifices,  a 
house  in  the  city,  and  provisions  at  the  public  expense. 
Among  their  prerogatives  we  may  reckon  precedence 
at  all  public  assemblies  and  meals,  with  other  marks  of 
distinction  paid  to  them  in  life  and  after  death. 

§ 5.  The  EphGri. 

119.  The  Ephori  (Zcpoooi)  in  the  time  of  Lycurgus 
seem  to  have  been  merely  judicial  officers,  whose  busi- 
ness it  was  to  settle  law-suits  between  the  citizens ; 
but  at  a later  period  (especially  from  the  time  of  The- 
opompus,  about  the  year  b.  c.  757),  the  office  gradually 
raised  itself  to  a position  of  the  highest  authority.  Of 
its  progressive  development  we  know  nothing.  Its 
political  importance  and  popularity  seem  to  have  re- 
sulted from  its  character,  as  representing  the  majesty 
of  the  people  in  opposition  to  the  Kings  and  Senate ; 
the  Ephori  being  chosen  annually,  and  all  Spartiat.es, 
even  of  the  humbler  families,  being  eligible.  120. 
Their  authority  gradually  increased  to  such  an  extent, 
that  all  other  magistrates,  and  even  the  Kings  them- 
selves, were  prosecuted,  suspended,  or  imprisoned  by 


SPARTA. 


59 


them  at  their  discretion  To  them  was  intrusted  the 
superintendence  of  public  education  and  morals.  They 
claimed  precedence  in  the  Senate  and  popular  Assem- 
blies, and  great  influence  in  the  most  important  public 
affairs ; gave  audience  to  foreign  ambassadors,  and 
themselves  sent  out  embassies  and  messengers  ( oxvTuh 7), 
settled  campaigns,  and  appointed  the  leaders  of  the 
army.  121.  Every  month  they  exchanged  an  oath 
with  the  Kings  (117);  and  in  after  times  not  only 
chose  two  of  their  number  to  control  them  in  time  of 
war,  but  even  possessed  the  power  every  ninth  year 
of  removing  them  from  office  by  means  of  a spectatio 
de  coslo.  They  themselves  were  responsible  to  no 
one  but  their  successors.*'  Their  constant  endeavours 
to  weaken  the  monarchy  were  favoured  by  its  own 
demoralization,  and  by  the  eagerness  with  which  each 
of  the  royal  houses  sought  their  assistance,  for  the  pur* 
pose  of  injuring  its  rival. 

§ 6.  Other  public  officers. 

122.  We  read  of  other  officers,  each  of  whom 
seems  to  have  exercised  a certain  jurisdiction  in  his 
own  department : the  naiSovofiog,  for  instance,  superin- 
tended the  discipline  of  the  boys  and  young  men,  and 
was  assisted  by  subordinates  termed  ffidcoi  ( §i'Svoi ),  of 
whom  there  were  probably  five.  There  were  also  the 
ciquoovvoi,  who  watched  over  the  conduct  of  their  wo- 
men, and  the  i/melcoQot,  or  inspectors  of  the  market. 
Other  officials  were  the  nv&iot  (in  Spartan  noi&eob),  four 
men  appointed  by  the  Kings  to  visit  Delphi ; the 
non£avcn,  whose  business  it  was  to  provide  accommo- 
dation for  foreign  ambassadors  and  the  guests  of  the 
state ; and  the  aQuoarai,  or  commissioners  sent  to  con- 
quered countries  or  cities.  Some  of  the  officers  em- 
cloyed  in  time  of  war  will  be  noticed  hereafter. 

. *-  See  Grote’s  Hist,  of  Greece,  vol.  ii.  p.  472,  473. 


60 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT. 

§ 1.  Its  object. 

123.  It  would  be  moi'e  difficult  at  Sparta,  than  in 
other  countries,  to  draw  an  exact  line  between  the 
efforts  made  by  the  state  to  promote  its  objects,  and 
the  individual  exertions  of  the  people ; since  every 
thing  like  domestic  life  was  almost  entirely  absorbed 
in  the  commonwealth.  The  very  existence  of  the  in 
dividual  was  merged  in  the  idea  of  the  state,  and  all 
his  interests  concentrated  in  this  one  point.  Nor  was 
this  “ state”  an  idea  which  was  permitted  to  develop 
itself  freely  in  conjunction  with  public  opinion,  but 
rather  a narrow  prison  in  which  the  people  were 
chained  by  education  and  the  unchangeableness  of 
their  customs.  124.  So  strong  indeed  was  the  build- 
ing, that  for  centuries  it  resisted  the  development  of  the 
popular  mind  : but  the  direction  which  this  development 
at  last  took,  became  for  that  very  reason  the  more  per- 
nicious, when  the  chains  of  ancient  belief  and  custom 
had  been  broken  link  by  link,  and  individuals,  bursting 
loose  from  the  state,  learned  to  seek  within  themselves 
alone  the  point  in  which  all  their  desires  were  thence- 
forth to  centre. 


A.  Administration  of  Justice. 

§ 2.  Judicial  Authority. 

125.  The  administration  of  the  Spartan  laws  was 
founded  on  custom  and  precedent.  The  judicial  au- 
thority was  in  the  hands  of  the  Senate  or  the  magis- 
tracy, to  the  entire  exclusion  of  the  popular  Assembly. 
Capital  offences  were  judged  by  the  Senate  ; private 
disputes,  especially  such  as  regarded  property,  were 
settled  by  the  Ephori.  126.  To  the  Kings  belonged 
the  right  of  deciding  questions  concerning  succession, 
the  marriage  of  heiresses,  adoption,  and  the  distribution 


SPARTA. 


61 


amongst  the  citizens  of  the  expenses  incurred  in  the 
formation  and  improvement  of  the  public  streets. 
Offences  committed  by  the  Kings  were  judged  by  the 
Senate  in  conjunction  with  the  Ephori.  There  seem 
also  to  have  been  several  other  magistrates,  each  in- 
vested with  judicial  authority  in  his  own  department. 

§ 3.  Punishments. 

127.  The  punishments  were  fines  (considerable 
only  in  the  case  of  kings,  generals,  or  harmostse,  122), 
curtailment  of  civil  rights  (arista),  and  death,  ’Azt^ia 
was  inflicted  on  all  who  violated  the  public  discipline ; 
and  in  its  fullest  extent  was  the  punishment  of  cow- 
ards (oi  TQt'ouTTeg),  whose  offence  was  visited  with 
complete  degradation.  Their  capital  punishments 
were  strangulation,  and  hurling  the  offender  into  a 
chasm  (xuiudag). 


B.  Religion, 

§ 4.  Gods  of  the  Spartans. 

128.  Among  the  Hellenic  gods  the  most  highly 
honoured  at  Sparta  were  Apollo,  the  national  divinity 
of  the  Dorians,  and  his  sister  Artdmis  (Agiafug). 
Zeus,  Hera,  Athene  (A&dra),  Poseidon,  {TloasiSdv  and 
IIoTsiduv),  Demeter  (/hxptdzrio),  Aphrodite,  Dionysus, 
Ares,  the  Muses  (fiaoai,  /xcoai)  and  Eros,  were  also 
worshipped.  The  Kings  were  priests  of  the  Lacedae- 
monian and  Heavenly  Zeus.  As  Dorians,  the  Spar- 
tans especially  honoured  the  Delphic  oracle  of  Apollo, 
which  they  consulted  on  all  important  occasions. 
Their  heroes  were  Heracles,  the  founder  of  the  Doric 
race,  Hyacinthus,  Castor  and  Pollux,  Menelaus  and 
Lycurgus. 

§ 5.  National  Festivals. 

129.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  were:  1.  'Ta- 
xiv&iu,  a feast  held  at  Amy  else  in  honour  of  the  Carnei- 


62 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


an  Apollo  and  his  favourite  Hyacinthus,  which  lasted 
three  days.  2.  rvftronatdlcu  (instituted  in  b.  c.  665), 
a festival  of  Apollo  and  Dionysus,  at  which  young  men 
danced  naked  and  practised  gymnastic  exercises.  3. 
KuQreiu  (b.  c.  676),  a nine  days’  feast  in  honour  of 
Apollo  Carneius,  during  which  the  people  lived  in 
tents,  in  imitation  of  an  encampment.  Musical  con- 
tests also  formed  a part  of  the  solemnities  at  this  fes- 
tival. 


C.  Military  Affairs. 

§ 6.  The  Army — Weapons  of  the  Soldiers. 

130.  The  Spartan  army  consisted  of  Spartiat.es, 
Lacedaemonians,  and  Helots.  Its  nucleus  was  origin- 
ally formed  by  the  Spartiates.  Its  strength  depended 
on  circumstances,  as,  for  example,  whether  all  the 
males  capable  of  bearing  arms  (those  from  the  age  of 
twenty  to  sixty,  s^cpqovqoi)  were  called  out,  or  only  a 
part  (viz.  those  from  thirty-five  to  forty).  131.  The 
equipment  of  the  Spartan  Hoplites  consisted  of  a brazen 
coat  of  mail,  a very  large  shield  (dams  %alxr]),  a long 
lance  (8oqv),  a short  sword  a helmet,  and  a 

purple  cloak  (cpomxig  azolf).  As  early  as  the  Pelopon- 
nesian war  it  was  found  necessary  to  employ  Helots 
as  heavy-armed  soldiers,  with  a promise  of  emancipa- 
tion. At  a later  period  the  citizens  served  only  at 
home  and  in  neighbouring  districts ; armies  sent  on 
foreign  service  being  composed  in  a great  measure  of 
Perioeci  and  Neodamodes.  In  the  reign  of  Agesilaus 
(b.  c.  399 — 355)  we  find  mercenary  troops  employed. 

§ 7.  Arrangement  and  divisions  of  the  Army. 

132.  The  efficiency  of  the  Spartan  army  consisted 
principally  in  the  judicious  gradation  of  the  command- 
ers and  commanded,  and  in  the  scientific  system  of 
military  tactics,  the  effect  of  w rich  was  strengthened 


SPARTA. 


63 


in  the  better  days  of  the  commonwealth  by  the  strict 
discipline  and  subordination  which  at  that  time  pre- 
vailed. The  strength  of  the  army  lay  chiefly  in  the 
Hoplites.  The  whole  force  was  divided  into  six  {togat, 
each  fxoQct  into  four  16%o<,  each  Xoyog  into  two  nzvts- 
xoazvsg,  and  each  ntvzey.oatvg  into  two  ivoafiozicu.  The 
Enomotia  was  from  twenty-five  to  thirty-two  strong, 
the  numbers  varying  probably  according  to  the  size  of 
the  army.  133.  What  proportion  the  military  divi- 
sions bore  to  the  civil  does  not  distinctly  appear.  The 
cavalry,  an  inconsiderable  part  of  the  army,  was  divid- 
ed into  ovlufxol.  We  read  of  two  distinguished  corps, 
the  Z/.ioizcu  (in«the  Peloponnesian  war),  a picked  body 
of  600  men7,  who  were  stationed  on  the  left  wing,  and 
the  innelg,  or  royal  body-guard,  who  were  posted  in 
the  centre,  and  generally  seem  to  have  served  on  foot. 
The  corps  consisted  of  300  chosen  Ephebi,  the  five 
eldest  of  whom  (dyaOosgyol)  were  drafted  off  every  year 
that  they  might  be  employed  in  embassies  and  other 
public  services.  The  Helots  formed  the  light-armed 
companies.  Each  Spartan  had  at  least  one,  and  often 
more  of  these  men  (in  the  Persian  war  seven),  who 
acted  as  his  servant  and  covered  his  flank. 

§ 8.  Officers. 

134.  The  army  was  commanded  by  the  Kings,  at 
first  by  both  conjointly,  afterwards  by  one.  Their 
council  consisted  of  the  nolffiag^oi,  the  captains  of 
morse  (132),  and  in  later  times  of  the  two  Ephori,  by 
whom  their  authority  was  greatly  circumscribed.  Agis, 
we  are  told,  had  a college  of  ten  av^ovlm.  At  a sub- 
sequent period  we  find  the 'army  commanded  by  other 
Spartans  (such  as  Brasidas,  Gylippus,  Lysander,  &c.) 
The  remaining  officers  were  the  loydyol,  nsvzijxoarjjQsg, 
ivco'fioTKQ%ut,  and  the  innaouncrai.  or  commanders  of  the 
cavalry  divisions,  with  the  Innaygizai  or  captains  of  one 
hundred  Inn  tig. 

7 That  the  Seirites  were  cavalry,  may  be  inferred,  though  not  with 
certainty,  from  Xenoph.  Cyr.  4.  2.  1 . 


64 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


§ 9.  War.  Battles. 

135.  The  campaign  comm  enced  with  a sacrifice  at 
home  to  Zeus  Hagetor,  and  on  the  frontier  (diufiazifoia) 
to  Zeus  and  Athene.  Then  a priest  of  Ares  (nvQCfoyog) 
lighted  the  sacred  fire,  which  was  kept  burning  during 
the  campaign.  The  religious  feelings  of  the  Spartans 
were  eminently  displayed  in  time  of  war : if  the  Diaba- 
teria  were  unfavourable,  they  remained  at  home ; nor 
would  they  engage  in  any  expedition  during  their  public 
festivals,  particularly  during  the  Carneia  (129,  3).  In 
camp,  the  usual  gymnastic  and  warlike  exercises  were 
continued.  The  Helots  were  excluded  from  the  camp. 
136.  When  the  army  formed  in  order*  of  battle,  the 
Kings  occupied  the  centre,  surrounded  by  a numerous 
staff,  consisting  of  the  Polemarchs  (134),  the  two 
Ephori,  diviners,  physicians,  flute-players,  conquerors 
in  the  public  games,  &c.  Before  the  battle  a sacrifice 
was  offered  to  the  Muses  and  Eros.  Then  military 
music  (to  ifjt^arrjQior,  the  Kugtoquiov,  or  March  of  Castor, 
for  instance),  was  performed  in  anapaestic  time,  accom- 
panied by  the  war-song,  which  was  often  one  of  the 
martial  strains  of  Tyrtaeus  (b.  c.  680).  The  army  then 
advanced  in  compact  masses,  keeping  step  to  the  music. 
Sometimes  scientific  manoeuvres  and  evolutions  were 
employed  (i^shy/xoi,  naQaymyal).  137.  It  was  not  cus- 
tomary to  pursue  a beaten  enemy,  or  to  plunder  the 
dead.  The  science  of  the  Spartans  was  displayed  ex- 
clusively in  the  open  field ; of  sieges,  and  the  attack 
and  defence  of  fortified  places,  they  knew  nothing. 
Military  rewards  and  punishments  consisted  for  the 
most  part  of  honour  and  disgrace.  Those  who  had 
most  distinguished  themselves  by  their  bravery  were 
rewarded  with  precedence  in  the  public  assemblies, 
garlands,  and  similar  marks  of  respect.  The  slain  re- 
ceived especial  honours.  Cowards  (ol  TQMavrtg)  were 
punished  with  Atimia  (127). 

§ 10.  Naval  affairs. 

138.  We  gather  from  Herodotus  that  the  naval 
force  of  the  Spartans  during  the  Persian  war  was  very 


SPARTA. 


fib 


insignificant,  and  that  it  was  simply  to  its  high  reputa* 
tion  that  the  state  was  indebted  for  the  Hegemony  by 
sea,  which  it  was  soon  compelled  to  resign.  It  was 
not  until  the  Peloponnesian  war,  that  Sparta  figured 
as  a naval  power.  Helots  were  often  employed  to  man 
the  fleet.  It  was  usual  to  give  their  naval  engage- 
ments as  far  as  possible  the  character  of  battles  on 
shore,  by  boarding  the  enemy’s  ships,  and  fighting  on 
their  decks.  The  commanders  were  called  ravagypi 
and  imoxolug. 


D.  Political  Economy. 

§ 11.  Income  and  Expenditure — Money. 

139.  The  expenditure  of  the  Spartan  government, 
which  was  inconsiderable,  was  defrayed  out  of  the 
tribute  paid  by  the  Perioeci,  the  estates  belonging  to 
the  commonwealth,  the  extraordinary  taxes,  which 
were  sometimes  imposed,  when  circumstances  required 
a larger  revenue,  and  the  proceeds  of  their  Hegemony 
and  wars.  140.  Lycurgus  prohibited  the  general  use 
of  gold  and  silver  as  a circulating  medium,  permitting 
only  iron  money,  which  had  no  value  out  of  Laconia 
(the  principal  piece  of  money ; tiHuvoq).  This  regula- 
tion applied,  however,  only  to  individuals : the  state, 
as  may  easily  be  supposed,  could  not  altogether  dis- 
pense with  a currency.  Even  the  Perioeci,  who  were 
engaged  in  trade,  were  no  doubt  permitted  to  avail 
themselves  of  it : and  at  length  we  find  the  privilege 
of  possessing  the  precious  metals  extended  to  the 
Kings  and  Commanders-in-chief ; for  Pausanias  after 
the  battle  of  Platasa  retained  two  talents  as  his  share 
of  the  booty,  and  pecuniary  fines  to  a considerable 
amount  were  often  imposed  on  the  Kings  at  a later 
period  of  Grecian  history. 


66 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES, 


E.  Other  Public  Institutions. 

§ 12.  General  remarks. 

141.  The  Spartan  government,  accustomed  as  it 
was  to  consider  the  individual  citizen  as  a cipher,  ex- 
cept in  so  far  as  his  welfare  or  ruin  affected  the  general 
interest,  naturally  interfered  in  matters  which,  in  other 
states,  are  generally  left  to  each  man’s  discretion. 
Thus,  for  example,  marriage  and  the  education  of 
children  from  infancy  were  under  the  control  of  the 
government,  which  exacted  from  every  man  unswerv- 
ing and  laborious  attention  to  its  interests,  and  im- 
posed all  sorts  of  fetters  and  restraints,  for  the  purpose 
of  sustaining  its  own  independence,  and  the  perma- 
nence of  the  existing  constitution. 

§ 13.  Marriage. 

142.  The  object  of  marriage  was  to  obtain  a supply 
of  sturdy  citizens  and  warriors.  With  this  view,  the 
state  imposed  a penalty  on  celibacy  ayayiiov),  and 
even  on  those  who  married  too  late  in  life  (8ut]  oxpiya- 
fdov).  The  father  of  three  children  enjoyed  certain 
privileges,  and  a divorce  was  easily  obtained  where 
there  were  no  children.  A penalty  was  also  imposed  on 
unsuitable  marriages  (ply.rj  xaxoyuftlov),  as  for  instance 
where  the  wife  was  too  young.  143.  The  marriage 
solemnity  consisted  in  a sort  of  rape  or  abduction  of 
the  bride.  In  the  olden  times  no  dowry  was  given  ; 
but  if  the  bride  were  without  brothers,  and  conse- 
quently had  inherited  the  estate  ( Kldros ) of  her  father,9 
the  land  became  the  property  of  her  husband.  It  was 
the  duty  of  the  Kings  to  decide  questions  affecting  the 
marriage  of  heiresses  (kzinauuTidt^).  Among  the  Spar- 
tans the  married  state  was  held  in  honour,  and  women 
enjoyed  a reasonable  share  of  liberty. 

9 Before  the  law  of  Epitadeus  (105)  was  passed,  a female  could  not 
possess  property  in  land  under  any  other  circumstances  than  those  here 
mentioned. 


SPARTA. 


67 


§ 14.  Public  Education  of  Boys. 

144.  The  great  aim  of  the  government  was  to  form 
by  means  of  education  a race  of  citizens,  whose  bodily 
strength  and  p’owers  of  endurance,  united  to  moral 
vigour  and  public  spirit,  would  be  a security  for  their 
performing  efficiently  the  duties  which  it  required. 
From  their  infancy  children,  especially  boys,  were 
looked  upon  as  the  property  of  the  state.  As  soon  as 
they  were  born,  they  were  examined  by  the  elders  of 
their  fathers’  Phyle,  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  that 
they  had  no  bodily  infirmity  or  deformity,  which  might 
render  it  necessary  to  expose  them.  They  were  then 
left  to  their  parents  until  their  seventh  year,  when  the 
state  undertook  their  education,  in  order  to  accustom 
them  to  strict  military  discipline  and  qualify  them  for 
the  army.  145.  This  public  education  and  ^discipline, 
(which  was  the  condition  on  which  they  were  after- 
wards admitted  to  the  full  rights  of  citizens)  was  con- 
tinued step  by  step  through  different  ages,  the  younger 
being  always  subordinate  to  their  immediate  seniors. 
They  were  divided  into  uyelcu  (in  Spartan  ftovui,  and 
the  overseer  ^ovayog),  and.  IXcu,  which  were  superin- 
tended by  a naiSovoyog  and  five  (?)  fiidecn.  From  their 
eighteenth  year  the  young  men  were  termed  ysXXsiQsvsg, 
from  their  twentieth  e’t'osveg  (igevsg?),  afterwards  acpaigsig, 
and  from  their  thirtieth  uvdgsg.  Every  citizen  of  full 
age  possessed  the  right  of  admonishing  and  reproving 
those  who  were  still  under  education. 

§ 15.  Education  with  reference  to  the  body. 

146.  Their  mode  of  life  was  exceedingly  simple. 
Their  diet  was  spare,  but  it  was  considered  by  no 
means  disgraceful 1 to  improve  it  by  means  of  theft, 
which  was  thought  good  practice  for  their  cunning  and 

1 The  laxity  of  their  notions  respecting  private  property  was  the  na- 
tural result  of  that  state  policy,  which  accustomed  the  citizens  to  think 
only  of  the  public  interest.  Hence  the  permission  granted  by  the  law,  to 
appropriate  in  certain  cases  the  moveable  property  of  their  neighbours 
and  the  thieving  practised  by  the  Spartan  boys. 


G8 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


courage.  If  however  they  were  detected  in  attempt- 
ing to  steal,  they  were  subjected  to  severe  corporal 
punishment  for  their  awkwardness.2  147.  Their  dress 
was  simple  ; from  the  age  of  twelve  they  received 
yearly  a short  cloak  but  were  not  allowed  any 

shoes  or  covering  for  the  head.  Their  beds  were  bun- 
dles of  hay  or  reeds.  Their  exercises  were  gymnastics 
(leaping,  wrestling,  and  hurling  the  discus  and  javelin), 
warlike  dances  (for  instance  the  nviwljri  and 
and  hunting.  One  mode  of  hardening  them  was  a 
yearly  flogging  (diafiaazijcoais)  in  the  temple  of  Artemis 
Orthia. 

§ 16.  Education  with  reference  to  the  mind. 

148.  The  Spartan  education  was  by  no  means  fa- 
vourable to  a free  and  liberal  expansion  of  the  under- 
standing. Scenic  representations,  and  the  arts  of 
sophists  or  rhetoricians  were  always  viewed  by  them 
with  distrust ; thus  whilst  sophistry,  rhetoric,  and  phi- 
losophy were  considered  important  parts  of  education 
in  other  countries  of  Greece,  these  sciences  were 
either  entirely  excluded  or  very  sparingly  cultivated  at 
Sparta.  Their  intellectual  training  was  in  consequence 
restricted  to  what  was  absolutely  necessary,  music  and 
singing ; chiefly  odes  in  honour  of  the  gods,  of  their 
native  land,  or  of  renowned  men ; or  war-songs  (flrj 
zffazrjoui  iionhu),  which  they  were  taught  to  accom- 
pany on  some  instrument.  149.  These  songs  were 
composed  in  the  simple  and  nervous  Doric  harmony, 
the  distinguishing  charcteristics  of  which  were  force 
and  gravity  ; for  even  music,  as  the  expression  of  popu- 
lar feeling,  partook  of  the  conservative  character  which 
distinguished  all  the  institutions  of  a government  jealous 
of  the  slightest  innovation.  In  order  to  accustom  the 

fD 

boys  to  listen  to  the  grave  conversation  of  their  elders, 


2 It  seems  a gross,  though  not  an  uncommon  mistake,  to  treat  this 
practice  as  a violation  of  property  and  an  encouragement  to  theft ; it  was 
a preparation,  not  more  remarkable  than  many  others,  for  the  hardships 
and  shifts  of  a military  life.  Thirlwall’s  Hist,  of  Greece,  vol.  i.  p.  136. 


SPARTA. 


69 


they  were  sometimes  permitted  to  be  present  at  the 
public  meals.  In  every  instance  the  greatest  respect 
and  obedience  to  elders  was  strictly  enforced.  Some- 
times a friendly  connexion  of  a very  intimate  kind  was 
formed  between  persons  of  different  ages  (slonvijlccg 
and  uizug). 


§ 17.  Education  of  Girls. 

150.  The  education  of  their  girls  was  also  public, 
and  closely  resembled  that  of  the  boys.  Generally 
speaking,  the  Spartan  women  enjoyed  greater  freedom 
than  the  lonians,  and  were  more  deeply  interested  in 
the  welfare  of  their  husbands  and  of  the  state. 

§ 18.  Men — ilieir  mode  of  life. 

151.  From  the  thirtieth  year  the  youths  belonged 
to  the  class  of  men,  and  were  thenceforth  free  from  the 
oversight  of  the  Paedonomi,  and  the  necessity  of  living 
continually  together,  from  which  until  that  age  not  even 
marriage  could  exempt  them.  Still  the  feeling  of  de- 
pendence on  the  state  was  in  many  particulars  I'etained ; 
in  their  public  meals,  for  example  (avaalua,  cpiSiziu3),  at 
which  all  wTere  obliged  to  be  present,  unless  they  were 
offering  sacrifice,  or  engaged  in  hunting  (uylSnog  ijugga). 

152.  At  these  meals  the  principal  dish  was  the  black 
broth  (faqid,  aiuuziu)  with  barley-bread  ( ul.cpiza , udfai). 
Sometimes,  however,  an  addition  (? nui-Aa)  was  made 
to  the  entertainment  ( al-Aov ),  by  individuals,  who  sent 
in  a portion  of  the  meats  offered  in  sacrifice,  or  the 
produce  of  their  chase ; and  in  after  times,  when  dis- 
cipline had  relaxed,  many  persons  were  accustomed  to 
bring  expensive  dishes  to  the  common  table,  or  to  attend 
irregularly  at  the  Syssitia.  153.  Each  was  bound  to 
contribute  his  monthly  proportion  (viz.  1 medimnus  of 
barley,  8 congii  (%ovg= congius)  of  wine,  5 minee  of 
cheese,  minse  of  figs,  and  a small  payment  in  mo- 
ney) ; neglect  of  this  regulation  ‘subjected  the  offender 

1 In  some  writers  ^nXfno. 


70 


MANUAL  OP  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


to  the  loss  of  civic  privileges.  New  members  were 
admitted  by  vote.  Generally  fifteen  sat  together  at 
each  table  (owxrjvot).  These  messmates  were  also 
comrades  in  the  field.  Even  children  were  admitted 
to  these  meals,  that  they  might  listen  to  the  conversa- 
tion of  men;  and  after  the  entertainment  questions 
were  proposed  to  them,  for  the  purpose  of  sharpening 
their  wit,  and  accustoming  them  to  answer  briefly  and 
distinctly.  Hence  the  expression,  a laconic  answer. 

§ 19.  Other  modes  of  sustaining  the  ancient  discipline. 

154.  It  was  required  by  the  law  that  not  only  the 
diet,  but  the  dwellings  also,  and  domestic  economy, 
even  of  their  Kings,  should  be  exceedingly  simple,  and 
that  all,  as  far  as  it  was  possible,  should  fare  alike. 
Their  dress,  m addition  to  the  Chiton  (the  only  gar- 
ment of  boys),  consisted  of  the  coarse  short  Laconic 
Himation  {zQt'fmv,  tqi^coviov),  a broad-brimmed  hat 
( mloe ),  and  a pair  of  sandals  of  simple  construction 
(dnlat).  In  his  hand  the  Spartan  generally  carried  a 
stick  (axvzdhj).  The  dress  of  the  women  was  also 
much  lighter  and  more  simple  than  that  of  the  Ionic 
females.  155.  Intercourse  with  foreigners  was  rendered 
very  difficult,  not  only  by  the  prohibition  of  current 
coin,  but  also  by  the  law,  which  forbade  the  Spartans 
to  travel  abroad  without  the  express  sanction  of  the 
government,  and  the  caution  exercised  in  granting  per- 
mission to  strangers  to  visit  or  reside  at  Sparta.  (fsvifka- 
cla  of  the  Spartans). 

§ 20.  Relaxation  of  discipline. 

156.  By  such  institutions,  which  promoted  sim- 
plicity of  manners  and  equality  of  property,  whilst  they 
cherished  public  spirit,  and  prevented  in  a great  mea- 
sure any  intercourse  with  foreigners,  the  constitution 
was  for  a while  sustained  in  its  old  Laconic  character. 
When  however  the  Spartans,  espei  ially  in  the  Persian 
war,  had  become  acquainted  with  foreign  lands  and 


CRETE. 


71 


manners,  and  experienced  the  charms  of  pleasures 
hitherto  unknown,  the  severity  of  their  discipline 
gradually  relaxed ; and  the  whole  system  of  govern- 
ment, no  longer  adapted  to  the  enlarged  views  of  the 
people,  and  at  the  same  time  incapable  from  its  unpliant 
character  of  being  either  modified  or  developed,  lost  all 
power  of  regulating  or  guiding  individual  exertions. 
157.  This  degeneracy  of  manners  was  especially  re- 
markable at  the  period  of  the  Peloponnesian  war. 
The  number  of  citizens  continued  to  decrease,  and 
equality  of  property  became  little  more  than  a name 
(103-106).  Selfishness  and  avarice  extended  their 
grasp ; the  most  shameless  corruption  prevailed  in  all 
public  offices,  low  as  well  as  high ; thus  fulfilling  to  a 
considerable  extent  the  well-known  oracular  proverb, 
a (ft).OjfQr]fxciz(u  ddnuozav  6 In,  u/./.o  8e  ovSiv. 


APPENDIX." 

CRETE. 

§ 1.  Historical  sketch  of  the  Country. 

158.  Although  the  peculiarities  of  the  Doric  char- 
acter were  most  prominently  displayed  at  Sparta,  we 
find,  nevertheless,  many  of  its  more  striking  features 
in  the  other  Doric  states,  such  as  Argos,  Epidaurus, 
Corinth,  Sicyon,  and  in  the  Doric  colonies.  Crete  at  a 
very  early  period  was  colonized  by  Dorians,  but  whether 
this  immigration  occui’red  in  the  remotest  ages,  or  not 
until  the  times  of  the  Heraclldge,  has  never  been  satis- 
factorily ascertained.  159.  Tradition  derives  the  an- 
cient laws  and  constitution  of  the  island  from  the 
heroes  Minos  and  Rhadamanthus,  whose  Doric  origin 
is  very  uncertain.  Crete  was  divided  into  several 

4 Since  the  Cretan  constitution  resembles  that  of  Sparta  in  so  many 
particulars,  it  has  been  thought  desirable  to  give  an  outline  of  its  most 
important  features  in  the  form  of  an  Appendix.  Compare  Thirlwall’s 
Hist,  of  Greece,  vol.  i.  pp.  122—124. 


72 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTKiUITIES. 


states,  independent  of  one  another,  but  united  -by  con- 
federacies (snazo/xnohg,  II.  ii.  049).  At  the  siege  of 
Troy,  Idomeneus  and  Meriones,  according  to  Homer, 
were  the  leaders  of  the  Cretans.  In  Odyssey  xix.  177, 
the  Dorians  in  Crete  are  termed  r Qiyutxeg,  an  epithet 
which  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  poet  was  aware 
of  its  occupation  by  the  three  Doric  tribes. 

§ 2.  The  Constitution. 

160.  In  Crete,  as  in  Sparta,  none  but  the  Dorians, 
generally  speaking,  enjoyed  the  full  rights  of  citizen- 
ship. The  other  inhabitants  were  a conquered  peo- 
ple, who  occupied  a position  similar  to  that  of  the 
Perioeci  (vntjxooi),  or  of  the  Helots.  Those  who  were 
employed  on  the  public  estates  were  denominated 
fucoizui.  or  fxvaizui,  the  slaves  of  private  persons  xlaQinzcu 
or  uqsaouiazui.  Their  condition,  however,  would  seem 
to  be  more  tolerable  than  that  of  the  Spartan  Helot.  We 
read  also  of  xQvadvtjzoi,  or  purchased  slaves.  161.  The 
government  was  vested  in  a Senate  ( ysqavla , ysQovaia), 
consisting  of  thirty  members,  chosen  from  the  Cosmi 
who  retired  from  office,  the  public  Assembly  (uyoQu), 
which,  like  that  of  the  Spartans,  merely  decided  ques- 
tions proposed  by  the  Senate  and  Cosmi,  and  the  Magis- 
trates, of  whom  the  highest,  termed  xoafxoi  or  xooyuoi, 
were  ten  in  number.  The  Cosmi  commanded  the  army 
in  time  of  war,  and  presided  in  the  Senate  and  Assem- 
bly of  the  people. 

§ 3.  Discipline  and  mode  of  life. 

162.  The  discipline  and  mode  of  life  closely  resem- 
bled that  of  the  Spartans.  The  education  was  strict 
and  began  at  seven  years  old.  It  consisted  chiefly  of 
bodily  exercises,  hunting,  and  music,  which  they  en- 
deavoured to  preserve  unchanged,  like  the  music  of 
Sparta.  We  find  also  the  same  friendly  connexion 
between  the  old  and  young  (cpdijrooo  and  yds  nog).  The 
men  assembled  at  public  tables  (urSoia)  which  were 


ATHENS. 


73 


maintained  partly  at  their  own  cost,  and  partly  at  the 
expense  of  the  state.  . They  eschewed  agriculture, 
mechanical  labour,  and  trade.  In  after  times  many  of 
them  served  as  mercenary  soldiers,  and  some  practised 
piracy.  Gradually  the  constitution  assumed  a more 
democratic  character,  and  the  struggle  of  opposing 
parties  continued  until  the  subjugation  of  the  island  by 
the  Romans. 


ATHENS  (ai  ’A&rjvui). 

CHOROGRAPHY. 

§ 1.  The  Country. 

163.  Attica  (Atuxii),  a mountainous  peninsula  ly- 
ing between  Bceotia  (from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
chains  of  Cithseron  and  Parnes),  the  Saronic  gulf,  and 
the  Aegean  sea,  is  divided  by  nature  into  three  parts : 
1.  The  eastern  or  highland  country  diaxQia,  ogeeivi] 
’AtTixrj),  extending  from  Parnes  to  the  promontory  of 
Cynosura.  2.  The  western  district,  less  mountainous 
(tj  nsSiug,  to  nsdi'ov),  with  the  sea  coast  (axzrj)  reaching 
to  the  promontory  called  Zoster.  3.  The  southern 
point  of  land  (tj  naqulia)  terminated  by  the  promontory 
of  Sunium.  164.  The  soil  of  Attica  was  by  no  means 
distinguished  for  fertility,  but  was  diligently  cultivated, 
and  produced  olives,  figs,  and  wine.  The  honey  of 
Hymettus  was  also  celebrated.  The  mountainous  dis- 
tricts were  favourable  to  the  breeding  of  cattle.  Its 
mineral  productions  were  marble  (chiefly  from  Pente- 
llcus),  silver  and  lead  (from  Laurium,  Auvqiov  or  Aav- 
qsiov).  The  climate  was  healthy  and  agreeable.  165. 
The  extended  line  of  coast  and  excellent  harbours  in- 
vited the  establishment  of  fisheries,  navigation,  and  trade. 
To  Attica  belonged  Salamis  and  several  smaller  islands. 
The  land  was  divided  for  political  purposes  into  ten 
Phylee  (cpvlai),  and  174  Dgmi  (Sijyot)  ; but  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  trace  the  exact  position  and  boundaries 
4 


74 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


of  many  of  the  latter.  Northwest  from  Attica,  adjoin 
ing  the  isthmus,  lay  the  district  of  Megaris,  which  ir 
ancient  time  belonged  to  Attica. 

§ 2.  The  CajJital. 

1G6.  Athens  (cdA&Tjvai),  the  capital  of  Attica,  lies 
at  the  foot  of  a steep  rock  near  the  river  Ilissus.  Tra- 
dition points  out  Cecrops  as  the  founder  of  the  Acro- 
polis (Cecropia)  and  Theseus  of  the  city.  In  the 
Persian  war  it  was  sacked,  but  rebuilt  during  the 
administration  of  Themistocles,  and  adorned  by  Cimon, 
Pericles,  and  at  a later  period  by  Demetrius  Phalereus. 
167.  It  consisted  of  (I.)  The  city  (to  uotv),  divided  into 
the  lower  (ij  xurco  nohg)  and  upper  (ij  uva  noXig,  uxqo- 
Ttohg , KsxQom'ct).  The  most  remarkable  buildings  of 
the  lower  city  were  the  Odeum,  built  by  Pericles,  and 
originally  intended  for  musical  festivals,  but  afterwards 
used  for  public  assemblies  and  the  administration  of 
justice,  the  Bouleterion,  Prytaneum,  Tholos  or  Skias, 
the  Theatre,  several  Temples,  such  as  the  Theseum, 
and  Olympieum  : porticos  (ozoul),  as  the  cmwx  noixllt], 
adorned  with  pictures  by  the  best  masters,  a multitude 
of  Leschcs  or  places  for  conversation  and  amusement ; 
the  Areopagus,  or  hill  of  (Mars)  "Aqij  (Aouog  nayog), 
the  Pnyx,  and  the  Museum.  Among  the  open  spaces 
was  the  Ceramicus.  168.  The  upper  city  was  pro- 
tected by  a wall,  built  by  Cimon,  and  approached  by 
the  famous  Propylsea  (ttqotzvXcuu),  a colonnade  of  Pen- 
telic  marble,  erected  during  the  administration  of  Peri- 
cles. Its  buildings  were  the  Parthenon  (the  celebrated 
temple  of  Athene,  with  a statue  of  the  goddess  by 
Phidias),  the  Erechtheum  with  the  Temple  of  Athene 
Polias,  and  the  Pandroseum,  which  was  burnt  by  the 
Persians,  and  restored  during  the  Peloponnesian  war. 
Above  all  the  buildings  of  the  Acropolis  towered  the 
colossal  bronze  statue  of  Athene  Promachus,  the  work 
of  Phidias.  169.  The  quarters  of  the  city  were  : Lim- 
nae,  on  the  south  side  of  the  Acropolis,  Colonus  on  the 
north,  Ceramicus  on  the  west,  and  Mellte  on  the  east. 


ATHENS. 


75 


The  city  was  surrounded  by  a wall  (nsgl^olog)  built  by 
Themistocles.  Its  extent  is  said  to  have  exceeded 
forty-three  stadia.  Among  the  gates,  which  were 
numerous,  may  be  mentioned  the  Dipylon  or  Thria- 
sian,  and  the  Pirsean  gate.  170.  (II.)  The  harbour, 
with  its  appurtenances.  Munychia  is  a peninsula,  the 
north  side  of  which  forms  the  harbour  of  Pirseeus,  and 
the  south  those  of  Munychia,  and  Phalerum.  Piraeus 
and  Munychia  compose  the  port,  a town  adorned  with 
several  handsome  buildings,  such  as  the  Arsenal  ( onlo - 
xhfrj,  a-xevod'rjxtj)  built  by  Philon,  the  Docks,  and  a large 
Theatre.  All  these  harbours  were  joined  to  Athens 
by  walls ; one  of  thirty-five  stadia,  which  led  to  Phale- 
rum, and  two  of  forty  stadia  (rd  oyJhj),  connecting  the 
city  with  Piraeus.  The  Piraeus  was  fortified  by 
Themistocles ; the  connecting  walls  completed  under 
the  administration  of  Cimon  (b.  c.  457 — 456)  and  Peri- 
cles. The  Long  Walls  and  the  wall  of  Piraeus  were 
pulled  down  by  the  Thirty  Tyrants,  but  restored  by 
Conon  (b.  g.  393).  171.  In  the  neighbourhood  of 

Athens  were  the  three  celebrated  Gymnasia,  the  Ly- 
ceum, not  far  from  the  temple  of  Apollo  Lyceius  on 
the  river  Ilissus  ; Cynosargos,  near  the  Lyceum ; and 
the  Academia,  which  was  distant  about  six  stadia  from 
the  city,  and  was  greatly  embellished  by  Cimon. 


HISTORICAL  OUTLINE. 

§ 1.  Ancient  history  of  the  country.  The  Monarchy 
and  Aristocracy . 

172.  The  most  ancient  inhabitants  of  Attica  were 
of  Pelasgic  origin  f\Qavaot,  Herod,  viii.  44).  As  re- 
presentatives of  the  remotest  antiquity  we  find  mention 
of  Cecrops  and  Erectheus.  Cecrops  is  called  by  the 
ancients  an  Autochthon,  but  according  to  a more  re- 
cent legend  he  was  the  leader  of  a colony  from  Sais  in 
Egypt.  Erectheus  is  closely  connected  by  tradition 
with  the  worship  of  Athene  (II.  ii.  547).  According 


76 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


to  another  legend  Xuthus,  the  son  of  Hellen,  settled  in 
Attica,  during  the  reign  of  Erectheus,  and  introduced 
into  that  country  the  worship  of  Apollo  nuzQmog.  From 
his  son  Ion  the  people  were  called  Iones.  173.  This 
tradition  would  either  indicate  an  Ionic  immigration,5 
or,  if  the  Ionians  were  Pelasgians,  the  elevation  of  one 
tribe  above  the  rest.  The  legend  ascribes  to  this  Ion 
the  division  of  the  people  into  four  cpvhai,  according  to 
their  employments  or  their  places  of  residence  ; viz. 
relt'ovzeg,  or  perhaps  TeXtovzeg,  the  agriculturists  (or 
according  to  some  authorities,  the  priests)  ; vOn).i]zsg, 
the  warriors  or  ruling  aristocracy ; ’/dgyaSsis,  artisans ; 
and .AlyixoQug,  herdsmen.6 

§ 2.  The  subject  continued. 

174.  The  country  was  divided  into  several  states 
until  the  time  of  Theseus  (fifty  years,  as  is  generally 
supposed,  before  the  fall  of  Troy),  who  seems  to  have 
amalgamated  them,  and  made  Athens  the  capital.  To 
him  is  also  attributed  a new  division  of  the  people  into 
three  classes  (iQvrj)  : EvnazgiSut,  the  patricians  : Temfio- 
qoi,  small  landed  proprietors  ; and  /IrjiuovQyot,  artisans. 
The  executive  power  was  monarchical,  the  constitu- 
tion aristocratical.  175.  A few  years  after  the  expe- 
dition of  the  Heraclidae,  the  Ionians,  a people  connected 
by  affinity  with  the  Athenians  ( 'AOrjvaioi ),  being  expel- 
led from  Aigialos  by  the  Achaeans,  took  refuge  in  Atti- 
ca. Soon  afterwards  the  Dorians  became  masters  of 
Megaris,  and  the  Athenian  king  Codrus  having  fallen 
in  an  encounter  with  them,  the  succession  was  dis- 
puted by  his  sons ; in  consequence  of  which  several 
of  the  Ionians  having  chosen  his  son  Neleus  for  their 
leader,  quitted  their  native  land  to  seek  new  settle- 

6 But  not  a conquest  of  the  country ; for  the  inhabitants  of  Attica 
were  universally  believed  to  be  Autochthones. 

6 These  names  would  appear  to  point  to  some  ancient  division  of  the 
people  into  castes.  The  hereditary  priesthoods  of  certain  sacerdotal 
families  (the  Asclepiadtz  in  Cos,  the  Dadalidte  at  Athens,  the  lamidat 
and  ClytiadcE  in  Elis,  the  Talthybiada:  in  Lacedaemon  may  also  be  con- 
sidered indications  of  such  a division- 


ATHENS. 


77 


ments  in  Asia.  176.  During  these  disturbances  the 
power  of  tne  aristocracy  increased.  The  title  of  King 
was  in  consequence  exchanged  for  that  of  hereditary 
Archon  (of  the  family  of  Codrus) ; but  about  300  years 
later  (b.  c.  725)  the  office  was  made  decennial ; then 
thrown  open  to  all  the  Eupatridae  ; and  finally  divided 
among  nine  persons  and  made  annual  (b.  c.  683). 

§ 3.  Legislation  of  Draco. 

177.  Under  this  dominant  aristocracy  the  condition 
of  the  people  became  so  intolerable,  that  Draco,  one  of 
the  Archons  (b.  c.  624)  was  commissioned  to  frame  a 
code  of  laws  (&ecf*ol).  But  the  unreasonable  severity 
of  these  new  enactments,  and  the  aristocratic  spirit 
which  pervaded  them,  served  only  to  aggravate  the 
disputes  between  the  two  parties,  which  continued 
until  the  time  of  Solon,  who  was  appointed  to  the 
archonship  in  (b.  c.)  594. 

§ 4.  Solon’s  constitution. 

178.  The  first  step  of  Solon  towards  lightening  the 
public  burdens,  was  the  debasement  of  the  monetary 
standard.  A new  constitution  was  then  formed,  the 
chief  feature  of  which  was  the  division  of  the  people 
into  four  classes,  viz.  IlsvTuy.oaioptidipvoi,  'Inmig,  Ztvyijcu, 
and  Oijreg.  This  division  was  grounded  on  the  census 
(tifitjlia),  according  to  which  the  taxes  and  military 
service  required  from  each  were  duly  proportioned. 
The  fourth  class  were  excused  the  payment  of  taxes, 
but  were  ineligible  to  office,  and  served  in  time  of  war 
as  light-armed  soldiers,  and  afterwards  as  seamen. 

179.  The  ordinary  offices  were  open  to  the  first  three 
classes,  but  the  Archonship  and  consequently  the  office 
of  judge  in  the  court  of  Areopagus,  only  to  the  first. 
All  the  citizens  enjoyed  the  right  of  voting  in  the 
General  Assembly  (207),  where  the  magistrates  were 
chosen,  and  other  affairs  of  state  transacted.  The 
proposed  measures  were  brought  before  them  by  the 


78  MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUIl'IES. 

Senate  (of  four  hundred).  180.  Judges  were  chosen 
from  the  whole  body  of  the  people.  The  college  of 
Areopagites  was  charged  with  the  oversight  not  only 
of  public  officers,  but  of  the  life  and  behaviour  of  pri- 
vate individuals.  In  this  manner  Solon,  by  a compre- 
hensive legislation,  laid  the  foundation  of  a free  consti- 
tution, the  development  of  which  (promoted  as  it  was 
by  his  laws)  would  give  effect  to  the  Grecian  passion 
for  independent  and  universal  activity. 

§ 5.  Increase  of  popular  influence. 

181.  The  death  of  Solon  was  the  signal  for  fresh 
disputes  between  the  popular  party  and  the  aristocracy, 
which  ended  in  the  establishment  by  Pisistratus  (b.  c. 
5G0),  with  the  assistance  of  the  people,  of  an  autocratic 
sovereignty  or  tyranny.  After  the  suppression  of  this 
power  in  b.  c.  510,  the  influence  of  the  democracy  was 
increased  by  the  addition  of  many  citizens,  and  the 
establishment  of  various  democi'atic  institutions  ; as, 
for  example,  by  a fresh  division  of  the  people  into  ten 
Phylee,  and  100  (or  perhaps  174)  Demi  ;7  and  by  the 
Ostracism  (220).  182.  But  it  was  at  the  end  of  the 

Persian  war  that  the  people,  in  spite  of  many  struggles 
on  the  part  of  the  aristocracy  to  retain  the  balance  of 
power,  became  possessed  of  an  overwhelming  prepon- 
derance ; partly  through  the  importance  attached  to 
the  naval  service,  which  brought  into  request  the 
active  and  laborious  qualities  of  the  lower  orders ; 
partly  through  the  ruin  of  so  many  rich  individuals  ; 
and  above  all  through  the  eager  longing  after  addi- 
tional power,  which  was  the  natural  result  of  their 
previous  triumphs.  So  early  as  the  time  of  Clisthenes 
(b.  c.  508)  the  magistrates  were  elected  by  lot;  and  by 
a law  of  Aristodemus  the  pecuniary  qualification,  as 
settled  by  the  census,  was  abolished  ; thus  increasing 
to  an  enormous  extent  the  power  of  the  democracy. 


7 See  Thirlwall’s  Hist,  of  Greece, \ ol.  i.  p.  193,  and  Appendix  iii. 


ATHENS. 


79 


§ G.  Decline  of  the  constitution. 

183.  The  increase  of  wealth  consequent  on  their 
naval  superiority,  and  its  necessary  results,  luxury  and 
extravagance,  had  a corrupting  effect  on  the  character 
of  the  people.  The  democratic  influence  began  to  be 
abused ; and  the  doctrine  that  all  men  were  eligible  to 
offices  of  state,  gave  birth  to  the  monstrous  notion  that 
all  were  equally  qualified,  without  reference  to  their 
talents  or  fitness  for  the  office.  Presents  and  largesses 
(&£mqi-/.6vs)  began  to  have  their  due  effect;  by  degrees 
the  practice  was  introduced  of  remunerating  men  for 
their  attendance  at  courts  of  justice  or  the  public  as- 
semblies ; the  office  of  Areopagite  fell  into  contempt. 
184.  Pericles,  the  author  of  many  of  these  changes 
(b.  c.  469 — 429)  kept,  it  is  true,  the  people  to  a certain 
extent  within  bounds  through  his  personal  influence 
and  the  respect  in  which  he  was  held ; but  after  his 
death  the  injurious  effects  of  the  system  became  only 
the  more  apparent.  The  mass  of  the  people  continued 
to  separate  more  and  more  their  own  interest  from 
that  of  the  state,  and  to  view  in  public  or  individual 
prosperity  only  the  means  of  gratifying  their  own 
wants  or  appetites : rich  citizens  were  annoyed  by  in- 
formations (Sycophantiae),  the  allies  of  the  state  ruined 
by  extortions.  185.  Demagogues,  fully  instructed  by 
the  Sophists  in  the  arts  of  political  logic  and  popular 
rhetoric,  flattered  the  selfishness  and  vanity  of  the 
people,  and  availed  themselves  of  their  credulity, 
mistrust,  and  superstition.  In  better  days  this  power 
had  been  wielded  nobly  by  such  men  as  Miltiades, 
Themistocles,  Aristides,  and  Pericles ; but  in  the  hands 
of  Cleon,  Alcibiades,  Hyperbolus,  and  Cleophon,  it  be- 
came an  instrument  of  unmixed  evil. 

§ 7.  The  subject  continued. 

186.  The  aristocracy,  which  had  long  been  en- 
deavouring again  to  raise  its  head,  availed  itself  of  the 

8 Properly  “ play-money,”  given  to  the  poor  to  pay  their  seats  in  the 
theatre  with. 


80 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


sudden  scarcity  of  money  and  the  confusion  caused  by 
the  desertion  of  the  allies  in  the  Peloponnesian  war 
(b.  c.  411),  to  restore  the  more  aristocratic  features  of 
the  government,  such  as  the  Senate  of  four  hundred, 
and  the  Popular  Assembly  of  five  thousand ; but  its 
success  was  very  short-lived.  At  the  end  of  the  war 
(b.  c.  404),  Lysander  introduced  an  oligarchical  form 
of  government,  the  administration  of  which  was  in- 
trusted to  thirty  individuals  chosen  out  of  the  body  of 
four  hundred  senators,  but  the  tyrants  abused  their 
power,  and  were  speedily  deposed  by  Thrasybulus. 
187.  After  various  struggles  the  democratic  constitu- 
tion was  re-established  (b.  c.  363) : the  code  of  Solon, 
with  certain  modifications,  again  became  the  law  of 
the  land,  and  the  authority  of  the  Areopagus  was  re- 
vived. But  the  character  of  the  people  had  in  the 
mean  time  degenerated,  whilst  the  admission  of 
foreigners  and  slaves  to  the  privileges  of  citizenship 
had  augmented  the  numbers  of  the  lowest  class  ; all 
the  abuses  of  the  democracy  returned  therefore  with 
increased  force,  and  real  liberty  was  gradually  lost 
under  the  influence  of  the  Macedonians  (Chaeronea 
b.  c.  338,  Cranon  322)  and  Romans ; although  some 
of  the  ancient  constitutional  forms  were  still  retained 
at  Athens  with  the  name  of  a free  state,  which  she 
continued  to  enjoy  until  the  dissolution  of  the  empire. 

Having  thus  given  an  outline  of  the  various  changes 
in  the  Athenian  constitution,  we  shall  proceed  to  de- 
scribe her  polity  during  the  season  of  her  greatest 
prosperity. 


Inhabitants  of  the  State,  and  their 
Classifi  cation. 

§ 1.  Citizens  by  birth. 

188.  The  inhabitants  of  Attica  were  either  freemen 
or  slaves.  The  freemen  were  either  Attic  citizens  or 
foreign  settlers ; and  lastly,  the  citizens  were  such  as 
enjoyed  the  privilege  in  virtue  of  their  birthright,  or 


ATHENS. 


61 


were  admitted  to  the  rights  of  citizenship.  According 
to  the  law  of  Solon  every  man  was  entitled  to  full  po- 
litical rights  ( rtoXusla ) whose  father  was  a citizen,  even 
although  the  mother  was  a native  of  some  other  state, 
with  which  the  citizens  of  Athens  had  no  connubial 
relations9  ( iniyafxiu ).  A law  however  was  passed  by 
Pericles,  that  this  privilege  should  belong  only  to  legi- 
timate children,  both  of  whose  parents  were  citizens. 
During  the  Peloponnesian  war  this  law  seems  to  have 
been  disregarded,  but  it  was  afterwards  re-enacted. 
189.  On  attaining  his  eighteenth  year,  the  youth,  after 
a previous  examination  (doxifnaoia)  was  admitted  into 
the  number  of  the  Ephebi,  and  his  name  inscribed  in 
the  register  of  his  demus ; then  he  was  brought  before 
the  public  assembly,  a shield  and  spear  placed  in  his 
hands,  and  an  oath  administered  that  he  would  serve 
the  state  faithfully.  From  this  period  he  dated  his 
legal  majority.  190.  He  was  then  required  to  serve 
two  years  in  Attica  as  guard  of  the  frontier  (nsginoXog), 
after  which  he  was  permitted  to  attend  the  public 
meetings  and  to  bear  arms  abroad.  The  higher  offices 
of  the  state,  however,  were  not  open  to  him  until  his 
thirtieth  year.  Those  only  could  exercise  full  political 
rights  who  were  inUl[ioi ; men  who  had  lost  one  or 
more  of  their  privileges  were  termed  utiptoi.  This 
Atimia  was  either  temporary  or  perpetual,  and  might 
be  more  or  less  severe. 


§ 2.  Persons  admitted  into  the  rank  of  citizens. 

191.  By  the  constitution  of  Solon  no  foreigner 
could  be  admitted  to  the  rights  of  citizenship,  unless 
he  had  done  the  state  some  service,  and  was  regularly 
domiciliated  at  Athens.  The  freedom  of  the  city  could 
only  be  granted  by  consent  of  two  public  Assemblies, 
the  decision  of  the  first  being  null  unless  confirmed 
by  the  secret  votes  of  six  thousand  citizens  at  the 
second  ; and  even  this  decree,  like  any  other,  might 

* The  children  in  such  cases  were  termed  v60oi. 

4* 


82 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


be  set  aside  within  the  year  by  a yoaqit]  naQuro^av.  The 
persons  thus  admitted  were  denominated  d^onoirjzoi,  or 
simply  noiqroi.  192.  In  some  respects  their  position 
was  not  precisely  the  same  as  that  of  the  native  citi- 
zens, neither  the  priesthood  nor  the  archonship  being 
open  to  them.  They  were  also  excluded  from  the 
wards  or  sections,  which  partook  to  a certain  extent 
of  the  family  character  (Phratrise  and  Gene).  In  the 
early  days  of  the  Athenian  commonwealth  the  freedom 
of  the  city  was  seldom  bestowed  ; but  latterly  the 
admission  of  foreigners  to  that  privilege  was  more 
frequent.  In  the  year  427,  after  the  destruction  of 
Plataea,  the  honour  was  conferred  on  all  the  inhabit- 
ants, as  a reward  for  their  tried  fidelity,  and  towards 
the  close  of  the  Peloponnesian  war  many  of  the  Me- 
tered (193)  were  made  citizens.1 

§ 3.  Metaeci. 

193.  Although  the  state  conferred  the  privilege  of 
citizenship  only  on  a few,  many  were  placed,  through 
the  liberality  of  the  Athenians,  under  the  protection  of 
their  laws,  and  permitted. to  share  most  of  the  advan- 
tages which  they  themselves  enjoyed  (cpilohriu) . The 
number  of  foreigners  or  Metceci  ( pezoixoi ),  whom  the 
capabilities  of  the  soil,  or  the  character  of  its  inhabit- 
ants, or  the  hope  of  gain,  attracted  to  Attica,  was 
always  very  considerable.  They  were  not  allowed  to 
possess  landed  property,  nor  to  intermarry  with  the 
citizens ; the  attempt  to  exercise  any  political  right  or 
to  appear  before  a court  of  justice  personally  and  not 
by  their  advocate  (nQoazdnjg),  subjected  them  to  en- 
slavement ; the  payment  of  a yearly  tribute  was  also 
exacted  from  them  (/uroixior,  2-enxd  z tlm)  : but,  on  the 
other  hand,  they  were  permitted  to  exercise  their  trades 
as  freely  as  the  native  citizens.  194.  Extraordinary 

1 It  would  seem,  however,  that  neither  they  nor  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Bceotian  towns  Eleutherce  and  Oropus,  after  they  were  united  to  Attica, 
received  the  full  rights  of  citizenship,  but  were  still  subject  to  some  re- 
strictions. 


ATHENS* 


83 


contributions  (sbcpoga!),  expensive  public  services  (?.si- 
rovQylai),  benevolences  (iTuSoasn;),  and  military  duties, 
were  required  from  them  no  less  than  from  the  Atheni- 
ans. At  certain  festivals  they  were  obliged  to  carry 
the  sacrificial  bowls,  water-pots,  and  umbrellas.  Any 
relief  from  their  special  disabilities  could  only  be  ob- 
tained through  a decree  of  the  people.  To  this  class 
belong  the  laorelti^,  who,  in  consequence  of  their  meri- 
torious services,  were  placed,  at  least  as  far  as  private 
rights  were  concerned,  on  an  equality  with  the  citi- 
zens.2 3 

§ 4.  Slaves. 

195.  Attica  had  no  bondsmen,  like  the  Lacedaemo- 
nian Helots.  Their  slaves  were  either  purchased  from 
dealers,  or  taken  in  war,  or  born  in  their  houses  (o/xo- 
pms').  Persons  might  also  be  condemned  to  slavery 
as  a punishment.  Slaves  were  either  private  or  public 
(do'vloi  Srifinatoi).  The  public  slaves  were  employed  in 
various  inferior  duties,  and  especially  as  an  armed  po- 
lice, under  the  name  of  the  Scythians,  or  the  Archer- 
guar  1 (?o£oz«(),  a corps  which  consisted  at  first  of  three 
hundred  men,  and  afterwards  of  twelve  hundred,  who 
kept  guard  in  the  Agora,  and  subsequently  on  the  Are- 
opagus. 196.  The  condition  of  these  slaves  was  for 
the  most  part  very  endurable.  Even  those  who  be- 
longed to  individuals  were  to  a considerable  extent 
under  the  protection  of  the  law.  It  is  doubtful,  indeed, 
whether  they  were  allowed  to  possess  property : but 
their  masters  were  forbidden  to  put  them  to  death  ; and 
in  any  gross  case  of  ill-treatment  they  were  permitted 
to  seek  an  asylum  in  the  Temple  of  Theseus,  and  de- 
mand to  be  re-sold.  197.  Emancipations  were  fre- 
quent ; freedom,  and  even  political  privileges  being 

2 Individuals  as  well  as  whole  states  were  sometimes  allowed  to  pos- 

sess certain  privileges,  such  as  the  right  of  intermarriage  with  Athenian 
citizens,  of  holding  landed  property  in  Attica,  and  of  freedom  from  taxa- 
tion (drlXtia).  This  was  particularly  the  case  with  regard  to  the  np6^tvoi 
or  consuls,  appointed  by  the  state  to  watch  over  the  interests  of  Athens 
in  foreign  countries. 


84 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


often  conferred  on  those  who  distinguished  themselves 
in  war,  where  they  were  especially  employed  as  sea- 
men. But  they  were  never  allowed  to  visit  the  Gym- 
nasia, nor  to  be  present  at  the  public  assemblies ; nor 
could  they  appear  as  witnesses,  except  in  cases  of  mur- 
der, as  fitjpljiai.  Their  evidence  had  no  weight  unless 
obtained  by  torture.  198.  Emancipated  slaves  (linshv- 
&eqoi)  were  admitted  into  the  class  of  Metoeci  (193), 
their  former  master  being  now  their  Prostates  or 
patron.  Those  who  rejected  this  protection,  might  be 
again  condemned  to  slavery  by  means  of  a or 
yQacp)]  anoaiaoiov.  The  population  of  Attica  in  her  best 
days  exceeded  500,000,  of  whom  about  365,000  were 
slaves,  45,000  Metceci,  and  the  rest  citizens,  or  about 
10,000  families  of  Metoeci,  and  20,000  of  citizens. 

§ 5.  Plujlce  and  Demi. 

199.  Complete  political  rights  qualified  the  pos- 
sessor for  admission  into  certain  communities  or  asso- 
ciations, which  were  governed  by  their  own  officers. 
To  this  class  belong  the  cpvlai,  qQctTQuu,  and  ysvij. 

The  first  two  in  their  more  recent  form  derived  their 
origin  from  Clisthgnes  (b.  c.  508),  who  changed  the 
number  of  the  ancient  Ionic  tribes  from  four  to  ten, 
viz.  Erectheis,  Aigeis,  Pandionis,  Leontis,  Akamantis, 
Oineis,  Cecropis,  Hippothontis,  Aiantis,  and  Antiochis. 
200.  These  were  divided  probably  into  one  hundred 
and  seventy-four  Demi  (181),  the  names  of  which  were 
derived  either  from  remarkable  spots  within  their  limits, 
as  Marathon  and  Eleusis,  or  from  the  most  important 
families  among  their  inhabitants,  such  as  the  Daedalldae 
and  Ionldae.  The  Demi  which  belonged  to  each  Phyle 
were  not  necessarily  adjoining  districts,  but  were  often 
at  some  distance  from  each  other ; and  as  the  son’s 
name  was  always  inscribed  in  the  register  of  his 
father’s  Demus,  the  actual  residence  of  an  individual 
might  be  totally  distinct  from  the  Demus  to  which  he 
belonged. 


ATHENS. 


85 


§6.  Administration  of  these  communities. 

201.  Each  Phyle  had  its  own  sanctuaries,  lands, 
and  treasury ; with  treasurers  (zafiiui),  and  other  offi- 
cers (enifxthjTu'i  uov  yvXur).  In  the  public  assemblies 
ol  the  Phyle  the  affairs  of  the  community  were  trans- 
acted, local  officers  chosen,  and  persons  selected  to 
discharge  the  public  jtenovQyiou.  Even  the  Demi  had 
their  sanctuaries,  assemblies,  lands,  treasury,  and  offi- 
cers, such  as  the  Tamias,  the  Demarch  (dij^iugyog),  and 
the  Euthynus  (sv&vvog).  Youths,  on  attaining  their 
eighteenth  year  were  enrolled  in  the  register  {Irfiagyr/ot 
ygafifiazEiov)  of  the  Demus  to  which  their  father  be- 
longed. The  same  rule  was  observed  also  with  regard 
to  elder  persons  in  case  of  adoption.  202.  As  it  some- 
times happened  that  the  names  of  persons  were  inserted 
surreptitiously  in  these  lists,  a revision  was  made  from 
time  to  time,  and  the  names  of  disqualified  individuals 
expunged  from  the  list  of  Demotae  (drjfiozai).  They 
might,  if  they  thought  fit,  appeal  against  this  disfran- 
chisement ; but  if  they  failed  to  make  their  claims 
good,  they  were  condemned  to  slavery. 

§ 7.  Phratrice  and  Gene. 

203.  The  division  into  twelve  phratriae  (cygargiai), 
and  thirty  families  (j dvtj)  in  every  phratria,  was  of  great 
antiquity,  and  seems  to  have  sustained  no  alteration  at 
the  hands  of  Clisthenes.  These  divisions  were  in  fact 
entirely  independent  of  those  mentioned  in  the  last 
section,  being  not  so  much  political  as  religious  and 
private  associations,  either  originating  in  extended 
family  connexions,  or  organized  on  the  plan  of  such 
communities.  Thus  although  persons  admitted  to  the 
rights  of  citizenship  (drmonoigtoi),  were,  as  a matter  of 
course,  incorporated  into  some  Tribe  or  Demus,  they 
were  excluded  from  these  associations ; and  in  conse- 
quence were  ineligible  to  the  office  either  of  Priest  or 
Archon ; but  they  might  be  created  qigdzogeg  by  a de- 
cree of  the  people,  or  by  adoption  into  the  family  of  a 


86 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


native  citizen.  204.  At  the  Apaturia  (’ Anaroigm ),  an 
Ionic  national  feast,  the  names  of  new-born  children 
were  enrolled  in  the  register  of  the  Phratria,  an  ar- 
rangement which  acted  as  a check  on  those  who 
claimed  the  right  of  citizenship  in  virtue  of  their  birth. 
One  of  the  family  duties  of  the  Phratores  was  to  sup- 
port the  relations  of  a murdered  person  in  their  appli- 
cation for  justice,  or,  where  there  Were  no  relations, 
themselves  to  become  the  prosecutors.  The  affairs  of 
the  Phratria  were  managed  by  Phratriarchs.  205. 
Families  were  originally  thirty  in  each  Phratria,  each 
Family  being  also  subdivided  into  thirty  Households 
(otxtai).  These  ytvq  were  upheld  as  much  as  possible 
on  religious  grounds,  partly  on  account  of  the  sacra 
pjivata,  partly  for  the  sake  of  the  priesthoods  which 
belonged  to  certain  Families.  They  had  their  own 
sanctuaries  and  places  of  meeting  (lecyai).  None  but- 
the  members  of  these  Phratrise  and  Gene  were  per- 
mitted to  assist  at  the  worship  of  ’Anolhov  naz^cpog  and 
Zt iv  tqy.tlog. 


§ 8.  Trittyes  and  Naucrarice. 

206.  Another,  and  it  would  seem  a more  recent 
division,  was  into  twelve  zQizzveg  and  forty-eight  rav- 
y.QUQi'ai,  four  in  each  Trittys.  Two  more  were  added 
by  Clisthenes.  These  divisions  seem  to  have  had 
reference  to  some  financial  arrangements ; but  nothing 
certain  is  known  about  them. 


THE  POPULAR  ASSEMBLY  (’E*a/i<nV). 

§ 1.  Number,  place,  and  mode  of  summoning. 

207.  The  sovereign  power  of  the  people  was  exer- 
cised in  their  public  assemblies.  Originally  there  "was 
one  ordinary  (w/ui/uot,  or  t'vro/uoi ) assembly  held  in  each 
Prytaneia  ( h-Aqalai  y.vQiui)  and  afterwards  four.  Each 
of  these  had  its  particular  business,  but  this  rule  does 


ATHENS. 


87 


not  seem  to  have  been  always  very  rigidly  observed. 
On  special  occasions  extraordinary  meetings  were  con- 
vened. These  were  termed  avyxhjjoi,  or  if  the  people 
were  summoned  from  the  country  xazd-Ariroi.  208.  At 
the  ordinary  meetings  the  people  used  in  ancient  times 
to  assemble  in  the  agora,  afterwards  on  the  Pnyx,  oppo- 
site the  Areopagus ; then  in  the  theatre  of  Dionysus;' 
the  assembly  for  the  election  of  commanders,  but  no 
other,  being  still  held  on  the  Pnyx.  The  regular  sum- 
moners  were  the  Prytanes,  who  invited  the  people  to 
attend  by  an  edict  previously  to  the  day  of  meeting. 
On  that  day  they  were  called  together  by  heralds  and 
signals.  209.  The  maintenance  of  order  devolved  on 
the  six  Lexiarchs,  whose  duty  it  was  to  reject  unquali- 
fied persons,  and  give  to  each  qualified  citizen  a ticket, 
for  which,  on  showing  it  to  the  Thesmothetos  (236),  he 
received  an  obolus ; in  later  times  three  oboli.  Those 
who  came  too  late  received  no  paymenf,  and  absentees 
might  be  punished  by  fine,  attendance  at  these  meetings 
being  the  duty  of  every  citizen. 

§ 2.  Proceedings  at  these  assemblies. 

210.  The  meeting  was  opened  with  a purificatory 
sacrifice  and  prayer.  Then  the  subject  to  be  discussed 
was  generally  introduced  by  one  of  the  Proedri,  who 
were  previously  furnished  with  a written  copy  of  the 
proposed  law.  If  the  deliberation  of  the  Senate  were 
not  required,  the  proposed  law  was  read,  and  the 
people  asked  whether  they  would  adopt  it.  Their 
approbation  was  expressed  by  holding  up  their  hands 
(j7qo][£iqotov£iv,  TTQOj'EiQozovia) . If  the  matter  required  de- 
bate, all  above  fifty  years  of  age,  and  then  all  citizens 
duly  qualified,  were  invited  to  deliver  their  opinions.3 
211.  It  was  not  lawful  to  interrupt  the  speaker,  but  he 
could  only  speak  once  on  the  same  question,  and  was. 
required  to  confine  himself  to  the  subject  before  the 
meeting.  Those  who  transgressed  these  rules  might 
be  removed  by  the  Proedri  from  the  rostrum,  turned 


3 This  practice  seems  to  have  been  soon  discontinued. 


88 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


out  of  the  Assembly,  and  fined  fifty  drachmae.  In  aftei 
times  they  were  assisted  in  maintaining  order  by  a 
Phyle,  chosen  by  lot  for  that  purpose.  212.  Each  of  the 
Proedri  seems  to  have  possessed  the  right  of  protesting 
against  the  voting,  a severe  penalty  being  imposed  on 
those  who  either  obstructed  or  permitted  it  (emxptjcpiXtiv, 
diaxHQOToviuv  diSovai)  illegally.  Private  individuals 
could  also  interfere,  even  after  the  proposal  had  been 
gone  through,  provided  they  declared  on  oath  their 
intention  of  proceeding  against  the  proposer  for  bring- 
ing forward  an  illegal  motion  (j '(jacfirj  naQocvoficov) . 

§ 3.  The  subject  continued. 

213.  The  usual  manner  of  voting  was  by  holding 
up  the  hands  (jaQOTovlu).  Another  mode,  employed 
on  occasions  where  an  individual  case  was  decided 
(for  example  in  the  ostracism  (220),  the  admission  of 
foreigners  to  the  rights  of  citizenship,  the  restoration 
of  convicted  persons  to  their  civil  privileges,  and  the 
apportionment  of  punishment  to  heavy  offences),  was 
the  use  of  pebbles  (ip'jyot).  In  such  cases  it  was  neces- 
sary that  at  least  six  thousand  citizens  should  have 
voted.4  After  the  votes  were  taken,  the  result  ( xprjcpi - 
<5[w)  was  declared,  and  the  decree  engraved  either  on 
stone  or  brass,  and  deposited  in  the  archives  of  the 
state.  If  the  question  could  not  be  settled  in  one  day, 
or  the  meeting  were  prematurely  broken  up  on  account 
of  lightning  or  any  similar  8io<st][iiui,  it  might  be  reas- 
sembled on  the  following  day. 

§ 4.  Subjects  of  deliberation. 

214.  Ail  the  most  important  affairs  of  state  were 
decided  in  these  assemblies  by  the  sovereign  authority 
of  the  people.  Under  this  head  we  may  class,  war, 
peace,  the  conclusion  of  alliances,  arrangements  re- 

4 It  seems  uncertain  whether  the  law  required  six  thousand  to  be 
present,  or  six  thousand  to  vote  for  the  proposed  measure.  See  Thirl- 
wall’s  Hist,  of  Greece,  \ ol.  i.  p.  194. 


ATHENS. 


89 


specting  every  description  of  warlike  materiel,  expen- 
diture of  the  public  revenues,  settlement  of  taxes,  &c., 
introduction  of  new  forms  of  worship  and  festivals, 
with  other  matters  pertaining  to  religion,  adjudication 
of  the  highest  public  rewards  (such  as  honorary  chap- 
lets, statues  in  public  squares,  maintenance  in  the  Pry- 
taneum,  exemption  from  taxes,  and  finally  the  admis- 
sion of  foreigners  to  civil  privileges).  Ambassadors  to 
foreign  states,  as  well  as  those  sent  by  other  nations  to 
Athens,  were  also  required  to  submit  their  reports,  first 
to  the  Senate,  and  then  to  the  popular  Assembly. 

§ 5.  Legislative  authority  of  the  Assembly  ( Ecclesia ). 

215.  The  legislative  authority  of  the  Ecclesia  was 
in  ancient  times  so  circumscribed,  that,  although  the 
consent  of  the  people  was  requisite  to  the  passing  or 
repeal  of  any  law,  the  real  decision  rested  with  a limit- 
ed number  of  aged  men,  who  were  bound  by  oath  to 
discharge  their  duties  faithfully.  At  the  first  assembly 
held  in  each  year,  the  people  were  asked,  whether  they 
desired  any  alteration  in  the  existing  laws.  If  the 
Assembly  decided  that  any  change  in  them  might  be 
brought  forward,  it  was  next  required  that  the  proposed 
alterations  should  be  laid  before  the  meeting  by  those 
who  were  anxious  to  move  their  adoption ; then  the 
people  chose  five  advocates  (avvrjyoqot,  avvSixoi),  to  de- 
fend the  old  laws.  After  this,  Nomothetae  (loyotteiui), 
who  received  pay  from  the  state,  were  chosen  by  lot 
out  of  the  persons  who  during  that  year  had  taken  the 
oath  required  of  Heliasts  (255).  These  formed  a court, 
over  which  the  Prytanes  and  Proedri  presided,  and 
after  hearing  arguments  against  the  old  law  from  the 
proposers  of  the  new,  and  the  arguments  of  the  advo- 
cates on  the  other  side,  pronounced  their  judgment, 
which  decided  the  question.  216.  The  proposed  law, 
however,  even  with  this  sanction,  might  be  contested 
by  means  of  a XQUty'h  TtaQuvofjaov.  It  was  then  suspend- 
ed, and  the  matter  referred  to  an  assembly,  which  had 
the  power  not  only  of  annulling  the  law,  but  even  of 


90 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANT.' QUITIES. 


capriciously  inflicting  punishment  on  its  authoi ; a 
power  often  abused  in  after  times  by  demagogues  and 
sycophants.  This  yearly  revision  of  the  laws  was 
termed  imysiQozopi'a.  As  the  unbridled  license  of  the 
democracy  increased,  we  find  frequent  instances  of 
laws  passed  by  the  people  without  the  intervention  of 
the  Nomothetae.  To  avoid  gaps  and  contradictions  in 
the  legal  code,  it  was  decreed,  that  no  new  law  should 
be  passed  without  the  repeal  of  the  old,  nor  any  old 
law  be  repealed  without  the  introduction  of  a new  one. 

§ 6.  The  subject  continued. 

217.  All  the  officers  of  state  were  originally  elected 
by  the  people;  but  afterwards,  when  the  power  of  the 
democracy  increased,  and  the  true  principles  of  equality 
began  to  be  misunderstood,  they  were  chosen  by  lot, 
no  elections  being  decided  by  vote,  except  in  the  case 
of  particular  offices  which  seemed  to  require  special 
qualifications  or  a sort  of  public  confidence,  such  as 
certain  military  and  financial  functions,  embassies,  the 
office  of  the  ten  Sophronistse,  &c.  The  meetings  call- 
ed for  the  purpose  of  electing  magistrates  were  termed 
aoyjttQEfjiou.  218.  The  candidates,  especially  in  later 
times,  frequently  employed  (uoyairteaid^eiv,  anovSuQyjFuj 
the  most  illegal  means  in  order  to  secure  their  return, 
and  were  only  kept  within  bounds  by  the  severest 
penalties.  After  their  entry  on  office,  they  might  be 
removed  by  the  people  for  misconduct ; and  to  this 
end  at  the  first  meeting  in  each  Prytany  {fy/ltjala 
y.vQia),  the  Archon  asked  the  people,  whether  they 
wished  the  magistrates  to  be  continued  in  office  or  dis- 
missed. 

§ 7.  Judicial  authority  of  the  Assembly. 

219.  Before  the  Assembly,  as  a court  of  justice,  were 
brought  complaints  against  magistrates  and  other  unu- 
sually weighty  charges  ; the  proceedings  in  such  cases 
being  founded  either  on  an  information  (/.irjwatg),  or  an 


ATHENS. 


G 1 


indictment  (shayyella) . Cases  of  this  description  might 
also  he  brought  before  the  Senate,  which  had  the  pow- 
er of  inflicting  penalties  to  the  extent  of  five  hundred 
drachmae ; but  the  more  important  questions  were  re- 
ferred to  the  people,  who  nevertheless  seldom  voted, 
(as  they  did  on  the  trial  of  the  commanders  in  the  bat- 
tle at  the  Arginusian  islands),  but  chose  rather  to  refer 
the  cause  to  the  decision  of  the  ordinary  court  of  the 
Heliasts,  electing  at  the  same  time  ovvduoi  or  ovtrjyoQoi, 
who  were  to  act  as  public  prosecutors  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  principal  accuser.  Different  from  this 
were  the  nQofiola!,  or  previous  complaints,  which  were 
intended  to  prepare  the  people  for  further  proceedings, 
and  to  enlist  their  prejudices  on  the  side  of  charges 
hereafter  to  be  brought  before  the  courts  of  justice. 
This  mode  of  proceeding  was  especially  adopted  with 
reference  to  charges  against  important  personages  or 
party-leaders. 

§ 8.  The  Ostracism ,5 

220.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  Ostracism 
was  not  a judicial  or  penal  measure,  but  simply  a poli- 
tical plan  for  averting  any  dangers  which  might  threat- 
en public  liberty  or  equality.  Every  year  at  a partic- 
ular season  the  people  were  asked  by  the  Prytanes, 
whether  they  desired  that  the  Ostracism  should  be 
employed ; and  if  they  answered  in  the  affirmative,  an 
assembly  was  held  in  the  uyoQu,  at  which  their  wishes 
were  declared  by  voting,  it  being,  however,  understood 
that  no  decision  was  valid,  unless  the  number  of  votes 
amounted  to  six  thousand.  221.  Pei'sons  condemned 
by  the  Ostracism  were  required  to  leave  the  city  with- 
in ten  days,  and  absent  themselves  from  the  country  for 
ten  years.6  They  might  however  be  recalled  before 
the  expiration  of  the  time  by  the  people,  who  possessed 
the  exclusive  right  of  remitting  any  punishment  or 

5 The  ostracism  existed  also  in  Argos,  Megara,  Syracuse,  and  Mile- 
tus. Its  institution  is  ascribed  to  Clisthenes. 

0 The  time  of  absence  was  afterwards  restricted  to  five  years. 


92 


MANUAL  CF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


Atimia.  No  disgrace  was  attached  to  the  Ostracism, 
nor  was  any  injury  done  to  the  house  or  property  of 
the  banished  man.  The  most  distinguished  men  of 
Athens  were  compelled  to  submit  to  this  proscription, 
until  the  administration  of  Alcibiades,  who  contrived, 
after  the  banishment  of  the  demagogue  Hyperbolus,  to 
obtain  the  abolition  of  the  Ostracism. 

§9.  The  Senate  or  Council7  (fiovXrj) 
Qualification  of  Members.  Privileges. 

222.  In  the  time  of  Solon  the  Senate  consisted  of 
four  hundred  members,  viz.  one  hundred  from  each  of 
the  four  Phylse  ; under  Clisthenes  the  number  was  in- 
creased to  five  hundred,  fifty  from  each  of  the  new 
Phylae.  In  the  olden  time  only  the  first  three  classes 
(nevTuxoaiontdifAvoi,  Inmig,  and  yhut)  were  eligible  to 
the  office,  but  when  the  power  of  the  people  increased, 
the  qualification  was  extended  to  all  who  were  inlrTnoi 
and  thirty  years  of  age.  The  Senators  were  elected 
annually  by  lot  (probably  after  the  time  of  Clisthenes). 
The  same  members  might,  however,  be  re-elected. 
After  their  election  they  were  required  to  submit  to  a 
Soy.ifiaala,  and  if  the  result  were  unsatisfactory,  others 
were  appointed  to  supply  their  places.  223.  Before 
entering  on  office  they  took  an  oath  to  discharge  faith- 
fully their  senatorial  duties  (( oqxo$  fiovlevrixoi;),  and  even 
during  their  session  might  be  expelled  by  their  col- 
leagues for  misconduct.  In  all  other  respects,  however, 
they  seem  to  have  been  irresponsible,  except  with  re- 

7 (Called  “the  Council ” by  Thirlwall.  History  of  Greece,  v ol.  i.  p. 
194.)  The  senate  possessed  the  initiative  in  all  deliberations,  with 
higher  admivJstrative  authority  ; in  this  sense,  therefore,  it  may  be  called 
a distinct  estate.  But  in  all  other  points  of  view,  the  Bouleuta;,  no  less 
than  the  judges  (or  jurors:  Heliastae),  and  the  Legislative  Committee 
(the  Nomothetae),  must  be  considered  as  a small  committee  of  the  people 
themselves,  in  opposition  to  the  magistrates,  who  were  their  servants.  A 
further  proof  of  this  was  their  irresponsibility  ; and  at  a later  period  the  re- 
muneration which  they  received  out  of  the  state  treasury,  as  members  of 
the  General  Assembly.  In  early  times,  the  second  council,  called  the 
Areopagus,  possessed  also  considerable  power  and  influence. 


ATHENS. 


03 


ference  to  their  financial  administration.  Each  Sena- 
tor received  daily  from  the  state  one  drachma  as  a 
remuneration  for  his  services.  Their  privileges  were, 
exemption  from  military  service  during  their  year  of 
office,  and  a particular  place  in  the  theatre  (i zonog  fiov- 
fevzfxos).  Their  badge  was  a myrtle  chaplet,  which 
they  wore  at  the  meetings  of  the  Senate.  If  they  dis- 
charged their  duties  faithfully,  the  people  generally 
awarded  a golden  chaplet  to  the  whole  college  at  the 
expiration  of  their  year  of  office. 

§ 10.  Duties  of  the  Senate. 

224.  The  duties  of  the  Senate  consisted  partly  in 
discussing  and  preparing  the  measures  which  were 
to  be  laid  before  the  people  (nQoftovXeveiv,  nQofiovhevfut), 
partly  in  the  management  of  various  ordinary  and  ex- 
traordinary matters.  They  received  the  reports  of 
ambassadors,  gave  audience  to  the  envoys  of  foreign 
powers  and  introduced  them  to  the  General  Assembly, 
managed  the  Soxifxaaiai  (231)  of  the  Archons,  &c.  Their 
office  also  comprehended  the  administration  of  matters 
of  finance,  war,  and  justice.  In  the  character  of  a 
Committee  of  Finance  they  arranged  the  farming  of 
the  public  revenues,  received  the  rents,  kept  the  ac- 
counts, exercised  a general  superintendence  and  con- 
trol over  all  public  accountants  and  receivers,  and  laid 
before  the  people  a statement  of  the  public  receipts 
and  expenditure,  besides  distributing  the  state  allow- 
ance to  the  poor  and  infirm.  225.  The  Senate  also 
superintended  the  annual  building  of  vessels  for  the 
fleet,  and  inspected  the  standing  body  of  cavalry,  which 
at  first  consisted  of  300,  then  600,  and  afterwards  of 
1000,  or,  including  the  Hippotoxotae,  1200  men.  They 
exercised  also  a judicial  authority  in  receiving  and  dis- 
posing of  complaints,  which  the  aggrieved  party  was 
either  unable  or  unwilling  to  bring  before  the  people, 
and  had  the  power  of  punishing  minor  offences  by  the 
infliction  of  a fine  not  exceeding  500  drachmae.  More 
important  cases  were  decided  in  the  usual  way,  unless 


94 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


the  people  under  peculiar  circumstances  thought  fit  to 
give  increased  judicial  authority  to  the  Senate.  The 
decisions  of  the  Senate  were  binding  only  during  the 
period  of  their  session. 

§11.  Manner  of  assembling. 

226.  The  Senate  generally  assembled  in  the  Senate- 
House  (fovlzvvrjotov)  on  the  Ceramicus,  every  day  ex- 
cept festivals.  Their  meetings  seem  to  have  been 
public,  except  in  particular  cases  where  secrecy  was 
necessary.  To  avoid,  however,  the  inconvenience  of 
detaining  all  the  members  throughout  the  day,  ana  at 
the  same  time  not  to  deprive  the  people  at  any  time 
of  their  highest  deliberate  council,  the  Senate  was 
divided  into  sections ; by  which  arrangement  a tenth 
part  of  the  whole  body,  or  the  Senators  of  one  Phyle, 
sat  during  a tenth  part  of  the  year  (cpi >li]  nQvravsvovca). 
The  time  during  which  a Phyle  discharged  this  duty 
was  termed  a Prytany  (rr^vrareia),  the  members  Pry- 
tanes (novrdreig),  and  their  place  of  meeting  mjvzavuov 
(to  be  distinguished  from  the  ancient  Prytaneum  near 
the  Acropolis),  Qblog  or  Zy.ictg.  227.  Plere  they  were 
entertained  at  the  public  expense,  in  company  with  the 
cmalzoi,  or  officers  entitled  to  that  privilege,  foreign 
ambassadors,  and  such  citizens  as  had  done  any  re- 
markable service  to  the  state.  One  of  the  Prytanes 
acted  as  President  (imaraTtjg)  of  the  day,  and  took 
charge  of  the  keys  of  the  Acropolis,  Treasury,  and 
Public  Records,  as  well  as  the  state  seal.  He  also 
presided  at  the  sittings  of  the  Prytanes  and  Senate, 
and  acted  as  chairman  of  the  General  Assembly.  At 
a later  period  we  find  nine  other  ttoosSqoi,  one  from 
each  tribe,  and  also  a cpvli]  nposSpevovaa.  228.  Without 
the  permission  of  these  Presidents,  no  question  could 
be  put  to  the  vote  (innpiicpPsiv)  ; but  the  possession  of 
this  power  was  a privilege,  for  the  proper  exercise 
of  which  they  were  responsible.  In  ordinary  years  a 
Prytany  lasted  thirty-five  or  thirty-six  days,  but  in 
leap  year  thirty -eight  or  thirty-nine.  Each  Prytany 


ATHENS 


95 


had  its  secretary  (yna^iaztvg),  chosen  by  lot,  and  its 
avztyQacpEvg  for  the  drawing  up  of  public  records  and 
accounts.  Sacrifices  (domjQta  and  igizfiiu)  were  offered 
at  the  opening  and  close  of  each  session.  The  daily 
sitting  also  commenced  with  prayer,  particularly  to 
Zeus,  Athene,  and  Hestia  fiovlala. 


C.  The  Magistrates  (doyaf) . 

§ 12.  Different  Classes  of  Public  Functionaries. 

229.  The  functionaries  of  the  state  were,  (1)  The 
uQyovzeg,  or  Magistrates  properly  so  called,  who  were 
intrusted,  after  previous  trial,  with  the  administration 
of  a certain  branch  of  the  executive  government,  sub- 
ject to  the  supremacy  of  the  law  and  of  the  popular 
will.  They  exercised  also  a sort  of  jurisdiction  within 
their  own  department,  subject  alrvays  to  the  control 
of  the  ruling  powers.  (2)  The  who  were 

intrusted  for  a definite  period  (generally  thirty  days) 
with  the  management  of  some  particular  business,  such 
as  embassies,  Synegoriee  (215),  &c.  (3)  'TnijQszai, 

servants  who  discharged  ^subordinate  duties  under  the 
control  of  the  others,  and  were  for  the  most  part  either 
slaves  or  freedmen.  230.  The  first  two  classes  were 
elected  either  by  lot  with  xvayioi  in  the  temple  of  The- 
seus under  the  superintendence  of  the  six  Thesmo- 
thetse  (236),  or  by  the  votes  of  the  people  in  genera], 
or  in  particular  cases,  of  a single  tribe  (uQyorzsg  y.).rjQcoToi 
or  (inn  y.vdytov  or  y.vayievzoL  also  ysiQozorrjzol  or  u'iqezoi). 
Generally  speaking  the  lot  was  the  mode  of  election  in 
the  case  of  doyal  properly  so  called. 

§ 13.  The  Proof  of  Qualification  {Soy.ii.iaa la) . 

231.  Before  entering  on  office  the  newly-elected 
functionaries  were  required  to  undergo  an  examina- 
tion before  the  people,  and  in  the  case  of  the  Archons 
before  the  Senate  aiso.  This,  however,  was  not  a 


96 


MANUAL  OP  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


trial  of  their  abilities  and  fitness  for  office,  but  rather 
an  inquiry  into  their  political  competence,  and  into 
certain  leading  particulars  of  their  lives  and  conversa- 
tions, such  as  whether  they  fulfilled  the  duties  of  piety, 
good  citizenship,  &c.  232.  From  the  time  of  Aristides 

every  citizen  was  entitled  to  become  a candidate  for 
any  public  office ; no  property  qualification  being  re- 
quisite, except  for  particular  situations  of  especial  trust: 
for  example,  landed  property  in  Attica  and  children 
begotten  in  lawful  marriage  for  the  office  of  com- 
mander-in-chief ; citizenship  in  the  third  generation 
(fx  zgiyoviag)  for  the  priesthood  and  archonship.  The 
proper  age,  as  some  suppose,  was  after  the  thirtieth 
year.  The  candidate  must  also  be  free  from  bodily 
defects  (arpiXsig,  ftij  uvdntjgoi).  Those  who  were  re- 
jected (ot  unodoxinaa&et'Teg)  at  this  trial  (at  which  each 
citizen  was  permitted  to  state  his  objections)  were 
punished  with  Atimia. 


§ 14.  Responsibility  of  Magistrates. 


233.  Every  magistrate  was  required  to  render  an 
account  of  his  administration,  particularly  with  regard 
to  the  expenditure  of  public  money.  This  rule  applied 
not  only  to  magistrates,  but  to  all  who  had  public 
money  in  their  hands,  such  as  the  Diaetetae  (258),  Trier- 
archs,  Priests,  and  Ambassadors.  Their  accounts  were 
delivered  to  ten  Logistae  (Xoyiaznl)  chosen  by  lot,  who 
either  checked  them  themselves  or  handed  them  over 
to  ten  Euthyni  (ev&vvoi)  who  were  also  chosen  by  lot.8 
Those  who  could  not  render  a satisfactory  account 
were  summoned  to  appear  before  a court,  presided  over 
by  the  Logistae.  234.  In  this  court  the  interests  of 
the  state  were  represented  by  ten  ovvijyoQot  or  avvdixoi 
chosen  by  lot  for  that  purpose,  but  each  citizen  might 
act  as  an  accuser.  Until  his  accounts  were  passed, 


8 The  relation  of  the  Euthyni  to  the  Logistae  does  not  very  distinctly 
appear.  Some  suppose  that  they  were  one  and  the  same,  or  that  Logist® 
was  a more  modern  name  for  the  Euthyni.  See  Smith’s  Dictionary  of 
Antiquities,  article  Euthyni. 


ATHENS. 


9? 


no  citizen  could  leave  the  country,  or  take  any  other 
office.  He  was  also  deprived  of  certain  other  civil 
rights  and  immunities.  The  accounts  were  generally 
engraved  on  stone,  and  exhibited  in  public.  Many  in- 
scriptions of  this  sort  have  been  discovered.  Notwith- 
standing all  these  precautions,  frauds  were  often  com- 
mitted, especially  in  later  times,  and  even  the  Logistae 
themselves  were  not  unfrequently  bribed. 

§ 15.  Limits  of  their  power. 

235.  The  power  of  the  Magistrates  was  gradually 
confined  within  narrower  limits,  as  the  people  became 
more  powerful.  They  continued  a shorter  time  in 
office,  their  duties  were  more  subdivided,  and  they 
were  liable  to  have  charges  brought  against  them  at 
the  revision  fnr/ttQoroiiu  and  unoyetQorovtjaig)  which 
took  place  at  the  first  Ecclesia  in  each  Prytany.  No 
one  could  hold  the  same  office  twice,  or  be  appointed 
to  two  uQyai  in  the  same  year.  The  Magistrates  had, 
it  is  true,  the  power  of  imposing  an  inconsiderable  fine ; 
but  even  then  the  party  condemned  might  appeal  to 
the  popular  tribunal.  They  were,  however,  protected 
against  assaults  or  insulting  language.  The  only  in- 
signia of  which  we  read,  were  the  myrtle  chaplets  worn 
by  the  nine  Archons  and  some  other  officers. 

§ 16.  The  Archons. 

236.  The  highest  magisterial  office  was  that  of 
Archon.  Of  the  nine  Archons  the  first  (who  gave  his 
name  to  the  year)  was  styled  simply  agyav,9  the  second 
pao ilivg,  the  third  noXt'/xaQ'/os,  and  the  rest  &£tyfio&£rai. 
The  authority  of  these  Archons,  originally  so  great, 
was  afterwards,  when  the  democracy  became  more 
powerful,  restricted  to  the  preparation  of  indictments, 
and  the  presidency  in  the  popular  court.  They  had,  it 
is  true,  judicial  authority  in  small  matters,  subject 

5 In  non-Attic  writers,  and  especially  in  the  Grammarians,  Soxav 
forativ  (ioq. 


5 


98 


MANUAL  OP  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


however  to  an  appeal.  The  duty  of  the  Archon  wa3 
to  settle  actions  relating  to  disputed  successions  and 
other  family  affairs ; the  Polemarch  decided  similar 
disputes  between  resident  aliens  (fiszoixoi)  and  foreign- 
ers ; nothing  remaining  of  the  ancient  military  func- 
tions except  the  duty  of  superintending  the  funerals  of 
those  who  fell  in  battle.  The  fictaiXsvg  had  jurisdiction 
in  questions  connected  with  religion  ; and  the  Thesmo- 
thetse  in  all  other  matters.  237.  Certain  duties  de- 
volved also  on  the  Archons  as  a body  ; for  instance,  to 
choose  the  judges  yearly  by  lot,  to  inquire  in  the  ixxXtjaia 
KVQia,  whether  the  people  desired  to  retain  or  dismiss 
the  magistrates,  and  to  preside  at  the  election  of  certain 
military  functionaries.  The  three  first-named  Archons 
chose  each  two  assessors  (mxQtdQOt).  Before  entering 
on  the  office  they  were  required  to  take  an  oath ; and 
after  the  expiration  of  their  year,  if  they  had  discharged 
their  duties  satisfactorily,  they  became  members  of  the 
court  of  Areopagus. 

§ 17.  Various  Police  Functionaries. 

238.  The  Eleven  (of  evdexu)  were  chosen  by  lot,  pro- 
bably one  (with  a j ’Qu/Apursvs)  from  each  Phyle.  They 
were  charged  with  carrying  into  execution  the  senten- 
ces on  offenders,  and  with  the  management  of  the  pris- 
ons, took  cognizance  of  any  breach  of  duty  on  the  part 
of  the  police,  and  in  certain  cases,  where  the  offence 
was  public  and  in  confesso,  had  themselves  the  right 
of  punishing  notorious  offenders  and  common  rogues. 
The  datvvojioi  were  ten  in  number,  chosen  also  by  lot, 
one  from  each  Phyle,  five  in  the  city,  and  five  in  the 
Pirseeus.  They  were  charged  with  providing  for  the 
security  and  cleanliness  of  the  streets,  and  other  mat- 
ters of  city  police.  239.  We  read  also  of  officers 
called  odonotoi  expressly  appointed  to  keep  the  streets 
in  repair,  and  imardrai  rav  v8a7ar,  who  took  charge  of 
the  water-courses.  The  Areopagus  also  superintended 
many  arrangements  connected  with  public  order.  The 
dyonavoiioi  (five  in  the  city  and  five  in  the  Pirseeus) 


ATHENS. 


99 


.nspected  all  goods  brought  to  market,  besides  exercis- 
ng  a general  superintendence  over  matters  connected 
with  trade.  Similar  duties  devolved  on  the  fifteen 
cuocpvltxxst;  and  the  same  number  of  /z8zqov6[zoi.  Navi- 
gation, imports,  and  exports,  &c.,  were  superintended 
by  ten  Izzi/uEhjTul  zov  ifxnooiov,  who  were  chosen  by  lot. 
All  these  functionaries  had  a certain  jurisdiction  with- 
in their  own  department. 

§ 18.  Extraordinary  Functionaries. 

240.  We  may  notice  as  functionaries  appointed  for 
extraordinary  duties,  the  avvdixoi  or  ovvrjyoQoi  (already 
mentioned,  215),  who  were  the  public  advocates  or 
counsel ; the  managers  of  religious  festivals  (e.  g.  the 
imfithjza'i  ruv  /hovvaitov) ; the  purchasers  of  beasts  for 
sacrifice  Q hmrui ),  or  of  grain  (aaarai),  the  ten  judges 
of  the  spoi’ts  ( uOloOt'tai ) at  the  Panthenaic  festival ; the 
ten  caqQovnsrui  or  superintendents  of  the  boys  and 
young  men,  and  lastly  the  ambassadors,  of  whom  those 
employed  on  the  affairs  of  religion  were  termed  ■&ecoqoi, 
and  those  despatched  to  the  Amphictyonic  council 
ieQoyvTjfioveg  and  nvluyogoi  or  nvlayoqai. 

§ 19.  Public  Servants. 

241.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned,  the  yga/jfm- 
rsig,  generally  slaves,  or  at  least  persons  of  the  lowest 
class  ; the  xijgvxsg,  who  attended  on  the  higher  func- 
tionaries, the  senate,  the  Areopagus,  and  the  people ; 
and  many  others,  all  slaves,  and  comprehended  under 
the  general  name  of  drpoaioi  (vtzjjqezcu). 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT. 

A.  Administration  of  Justice. 

§ 1.  Sources  of  our  information  respecting  the  Att,< 
Jurisprudence. 

242.  Of  the  ancient  Attic  jurisprudence  before  the 
times  of  Solon  and  Clisthenes,  scarcely  any  thing  is 


100 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


known.  The  whole  system  of  Solon’s  legislation  was 
based  on  the  enlargement  of  a ground-plan  which  al- 
ready existed,  and  in  process  of  time  became  more  and 
more  developed  through  the  practical  working  of  the 
laws  ; for  that  theory  had  little  influence  is  evident 
from  the  fact,  that  in  the  whole  range  of  Grecian  liter- 
ature not  a single  jurist,  properly  so  called,  is  to  be 
found.  Our  principal  sources  of  information  on  this 
subject  are  derived  from  the  writings  of  the  orators 
and  the  later  grammarians. 


Laws  relating  to  private  persons.* 

§ 2.  Marriage. 

243.  The  only  forbidden  degrees  were  those  of 
parents  and  children,  and  of  brothers  and  sisters  by  the 
same  mother.  It  was  required  that  every  marriage 
should  be  preceded  by  a betrothal  (iyyvijotg),  with  con- 
sent of  the  nearest  male  relatives,  or  guardian  (xtlprot,') 
of  the  maiden,  otherwise  it  was  not  fully  legitimate, 
and  did  not  entitle  the  parties  to  all  the  privileges  of 
lawful  matrimony,  e.  g.  the  jura  agnationis  (ayyiazna), 
which  only  belonged  to  children  begotten  in  marriage 
in  every  respect  regular  (yri jaioi,  oq&oos  yeysrrjfitvoi).  A 
man  was  permitted  to  have  only  one  wife,  but  concu- 
binage was  not  forbidden.1 2  244.  The  marriage  was 
sanctioned  by  a sacrificial  meal,  given  to  the  members 
of  the  bridegroom’s  Phratria,  into  which  the  bi'ide  was 
now  received.  The  dowry  was  generally  given  by 
the  father  or  xvQiog  of  the  bride ; the  husband  had  only 
the  usufruct,  and  was  obliged  to  give  security,  that,  in 
the  event  of  death  or  separation,  the  woman  or  her 
kindred  should  receive  it  back.  The  husband  might 

1 The  most  important  public  rights  have  been  already  explained  in 
the  preceding  sections. 

2 In  later  times  connexions  with  tnaTpa i had  a fatal  effect  upon  the 
domestic  life  of  the  Athenians. 


ATHENS. 


101 


divorce  his  wife  (tWqu nstv),  but  in  that  case  must  either 
restore  her  the  dowry,  or  pay  her  the  interest  of  it,  and 
provide  sufficiently  for  her  maintenance.  If  both  par- 
ties agreed  to  the  separation,  nothing  further  was  re- 
quisite ; but  in  the  event  of  the  wife  wishing  to  leave 
(anoXsineiv)  her  husband,  it  was  necessary  for  her  to 
lodge  a complaint  before  the  Archon.  245.  The  next 
of  kin  could  claim,  in  virtue  of  his  relationship,  the 
hand  of  an  heiress  or  daughter  left  without  brothers 
(inixltjoog) , even  although  she  were  married  before  the 
death  of  the  testator ; but  on  the  other  hand  he  was 
also  compelled  by  law  to  marry  even  a poor  Epicleros, 
or  give  her  a dowry  on  her  marriage  with  another. 
These  im'y.hjnoi  were  protected  by  the  law  from  ill- 
treatment  (xcixmaig)  on  the  part  of  their  husbands. 

§ 3.  Parental  Authority.  Adoption.  Guardianship . 

246.  The  authority  of  the  father  and  its  consequent 
privileges  were  dependent  on  the  full  legality  of  the 
marriage,  in  virtue  of  which  the  son’s  name  was  en- 
rolled in  the  register  of  his  father’s  Phratria.  The 
father  had  the  right  of  exposing  his  children,  and  of 
expelling  or  repudiating  ( anoxrjQvxTitv ) his  sons,  if  they 
deserved  it.  He  was  bound  to  teach  his  son  a trade, 
and  the  son  on  his  part  was  required  in  return  to  sup- 
port his  aged  parents.  Adoption  (?.ianolr}cig)  was  gen- 
erally employed  as  a means  of  obtaining  an  heir : 
sometimes  it  was  viewed  in  the  light  of  a duty  under- 
taken for  the  purpose  of  keeping  up  the  family  and  its 
sacra.  It  was  always,  however,  subject  to  the  condi- 
tion, that  there  were  no  sons,  and  that  if  there  were 
daughters,  one  of  them  should  marry  the  adopted  per- 
son, provided  he  were  an  Attic  citizen.  The  adopted 
son  could  not  return  to  his  original  family,  unless  he 
left  an  heir  of  his  body  in  that  which  had  adopted  him. 
247.  Guardianship  was  under  the  superintendence  of 
the  state.  By  law  the  term  “infant”  or  “minor  ’ was 
applied  not  only  to  persons  under  age,  who  had  either 
their  father  as  their  natural  guardian  ( xvqioq ),  or  other 


Z02 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


ETtlrQonoi,  but  also  to  women,  who  could  not  engage  in 
any  matter  of  importance  without  the  consent  of  those 
under  yrhose  manus  or  potestas  they  were  placed.  The 
legal  majority  seems  to  have  been  attained  on  the 
completion  of  the  eighteenth  year,  when  the  youth  was 
admitted  among  the  Ephebi.  Guardians,  although  in 
most  cases  those  on  whom  relationship  imposed  that 
duty,  might  also  be  appointed  by  will.  The  guard- 
ianship of  the  Epicleri,  and  the  management  of  pro- 
perty belonging  to  minors,  were  subject  to  the  control 
of  the  Archon. 

§ 4.  Right  of  inheritance,  and  of  making  a Will. 

248.  None  but  children  begotten  in  regular  mar- 
riage were  entitled  to  the  property  of  their  parents ; 
consequently  vo&oi  were  excluded  from  this  privilege, 
and  could  only  claim  a sum  amounting  at  most  to  one 
thousand  drachmae.  The  same  rule  applied  to  adopted 
children : blood  relationship,  as  a ground  of  claim  to 
inheritance,  is  called  aypazela,  and  comprehended  not 
only  children,  but  collateral  relations  (by  avyyt'veicc,  in 
opposition  to  alliance  by  marriage,  which  conferred  no 
such  right).  Sons  who  had  been  disinherited  on  insuf- 
ficient grounds,  might  appeal.  The  children  of  one 
who  at  the  time  of  his  death  was  analog  on  account  of 
debt  to  the  state,  inherited  the  nnyda  and  the  obliga- 
tions of  their  father.  All  the  sons  inherited  equally, 
the  daughters  merely  received  a portion.  In  default  of 
sons,  the  daughters  inherited  (inlxbjooi).  249.  With 
regard  to  collateral  relations,  it  was  the  Attic  law,  in 
cases  of  intestacy,  that  the  males  should  inherit  in 
preference  to  females,  even  although  the  latter  were 
more  nearly  related  to  the  deceased.  When  there 
were  neither  natural  nor  adopted  heirs,  the  inheritance 
fell  to  a member  of  the  same  Phyle,  except  in  the  case 
of  resident  aliens  (ythoixoi),  whose  property,  under  those 
circumstances  lapsed  to  the  state.  Every  free  citizen 
had  the  right  of  making  a will  (diad-fay),  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  di]fio7iolrjroi  (191),  adopted  sons,  and  a 


ATHENS. 


103 


few  others.  Wills  however  were  invalid,  where  there 
were  heirs  of  the  body  not  disqualified  by  law ; but  if 
they  were  only  daughters,  a stranger  might  inherit, 
subject  to  the  condition  of  marrying  one  of  them. 
250.  In  all  cases,  legacies  (ScoqeciI)  might  be  left,  pro- 
vided the  estate  and  the  rights  of  the  natural  heirs  were 
not  injured.  None  but  citizens  (including  SrjixonoiTjroi) 
could  inherit  property.  Great  importance  was  attached 
by  the  state  to  the  subject  of  inheritances,  the  attention 
of  the  people  being  drawn  to  it  at  every  ixubjala  xoqio. 
The  ground  of  this  strictness  seems  to  have  been  prin- 
cipally a religious  fear,  lest  any  house  should  become 
entirely  extinct. 

§ 5.  Laws  relating  to  Obligations  and  Securities. 

251.  The  chief  means  of  security  in  pecuniary 
transactions  were  written  contracts  (avy/ouqiul)  and 
oral  testimony  (imqtvqicu)  . By  the  code  of  Solon 
milder  provisions  were  substituted  for  the  old  law  of 
debt,  which  was  very  severe.  Witnesses  were  present 
at  the  paying  over  of  a loan  to  the  borrower,  and  a 
written  acknowledgment  was  also  generally  placed  in 
the  hands  of  a TQan^lzris.  As  trade  and  barter  in- 
creased, it  became  customary  to  deposit  security  (sW- 
Xvqov).  All  borrowing  and  lending  transactions  con- 
nected with  navigation  and  commerce  being  of  the 
greatest  important  to  the  state,  the  laws  by  which 
they  were  regulated  were  exceedingly  exact  and 
stringent.  252.  The  rate  of  interest  was  not  fixed  by 
Solon,  and  was  generally  very  high  (seldom  under  ten 
per  cent).  It  was  reckoned  either  as  a per-centage  on 
the  sum  lent,  or  as  a certain  portion  of  the  capital,  say 
a "h  &>  or  Eyyvi]  (security  or  bail)  was  permitted  in  all 
sorts  of  civil  contracts,  as  well  as  in  penal  proceedings. 
The  f lovlsvuu  were  required  to  swear,  that  they  would 
not  imprison  any  Athenian,  provided  he  could  obtain 
the  security  of  three  members  of  the  same  class  with 
himself.  This  oath,  however,  did  not  apply  to  persons 
accused  of  high  treason  or  to  public  defaulters.  In  the 


104 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


transfer  of  real  property,  we  find  no  traces  of  the  sym* 
bolic  usages  employed  by  the  Romans  on  such  occa- 
sions. 


Judges  and  Courts  of  Justice. 

§ 6.  Historical  Account  of  the  Courts  of  Justice. 

253.  Of  the  most  ancient  Attic  courts  of  justice  we 
know  very  little.  The  Archons  inherited  their  judicial 
authority  from  the  kings ; but  we  find  at  a very  early 
period  mention  made  of  the  courts  of  the  Areopagites 
and  Ephgtae  (262),  the  latter  established  by  Draco,  the 
former  confirmed  and  extended  by  Solon.  By  Solon’s 
constitutions  the  people  in  general  were  admitted  to 
these  courts : it  does  not  seem,  however,  that  the 
judicial  authority  of  the  Archons  was  immediately 
superseded ; the  usurpation  of  their  functions  by  the 
people,  so  that  nothing  was  left  to  the  magistrates  ex- 
cept the  Hegemonia  or  presidency  in  the  courts,  having 
been  gradually  established,  as  the  power  of  the  democ- 
racy increased.  254.  The  overwhelming  weight  of 
business  in  these  courts  resulted  from  the  obscurity  and 
deficiencies  of  Athenian  legislation  in  many  points  of 
view,  the  love  of  litigation  inherent  in  the  people,  their 
endeavours  to  subject  the  decisions  of  magistrates  to 
the  revision  of  their  courts,  and  at  a later  period  from 
the  arrogance,  which  would  make  Athens  the  forum  in 
which  all  the  disputes  of  her  allies  were  to  be  settled. 
The  courts  of  justice,  besides  those  of  the  Areopagites 
and  Ephetae,  were  those  of  the  Heliasts,  the  Diaetetse, 
the  Forty,  and  in  ancient  times  the  Nautodicae,  or 
judges  in  commercial  suits. 

§ 7.  The  Heliasts. 

255.  The  Heliasts  (dixaarccl,  or,  from  the  name  of 
their  principal  court  rfialct,  assembly ; allrj  in  Herod., 
rihctazal)  were  a body  of  judges  (or  jurors),  who  must 
be  considered  as  the  representatives  of  the  judicial  au- 


ATHENS. 


105 


thority  possessed  by  the  whole  people.  Every  year  the 
nine  Archons  chose  by  lot  six  thousand  citizens  who 
had  completed  the:r  thirtieth  year,  probably  six  hundred 
out  of  each  phyle.  Of  these,  five  thousand  were  divided 
into  ten  decades,  the  remaining  one  thousand  probably 
serving  as  a reserve.  They  were  all  required  to  take 
the  oath  of  office.  256.  When  any  cause  was  to  be 
tried,  it  was  decided  by  lot  on  the  same  morning,  at 
which  of  the  various  spots  and  under  the  presidency  of 
which  magistrate  each  division  should  sit ; the  place 
was  then  marked  out  by  judicial  staves  (fiaxTygiat),  with 
different  numbers  and  colours.  The  number  of  judges 
;'-?ned  according  to  circumstances;  sometimes  several 
decades  sitting,  at  others  not  even  a single  one  entire ; 
the  number  was,  however,  generally  an  uneven  one. 
Questions  respecting  the  desecration  of  the  mysteries 
were  tried  only  before  such  Heliasts  as  were  initiated, 
those  which  regarded  breaches  of  military  discipline 
only  before  those  who  were  themselves  military  men. 
257.  Their  authority  extended  to  all  other  cases,  with 
the  exception  of  indictments  for  murder  or  wounding 
with  intent  to  kill.  Each  judge,  on  arriving  at  the 
appointed  place,  received  a ticket  {av^olov),  on  the 
production  of  which  he  was  entitled  (since  the  time  of 
Pericles)  to  receive  a remuneration  of  three  oboli  (tqi- 
oifiolov  TjhaoTi'/.oi’)  from  the  Colacrgtae  (KalaxQsiai). 
The  number  of  places  appointed  for  holding  the  courts 
is  unknown.  No  sessions  were  held  on  days  of  public 
assembly,  or  on  festival  or  unlucky  days  (anocpQades 
Tlfi(Qcu).  On  the  last  three  days  of  the  month,  the  court 
of  Areopagites  sat,  but  not  the  Heliasts. 

§ 8.  The  Dicetetce.  The  Forty. 

258.  The  court  of  the  Diaetetee  (S/uiTijraf)  was  an 
inferior  tribunal,  to  which  private  disputes  were  re- 
ferred, in  the  first  instance,  subject  to  an  appeal  (eqson;) 
before  the  Heliasts.3  Four  judges — scarcely  forty-four 

3 Disputes  were  sometimes  settled  by  private  Disetetse  or  arbitrators. 


106 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


as  some  suppose — were  chosen  yearly  by  lot  out  of 
each  phyle.  They  were  required  to  be  fifty  or  sixty 
years  of  age.  In  each  cause  only  one  Disetetes,  chosen 
by  the  magistrate  by  lot  out  of  the  phyle  of  the  defend- 
ant, sat  as  judge.  They  received  small  fees  (nanaozd- 
ostg,  deposits)  from  .each  trial.  At  the  expiration  of 
their  office  they  were  responsible  to  the  Logistse,  and 
might  be  punished  with  Atimia.  259.  The  Forty  (for- 
merly the  thirty)  judges  (oi  zszzu^dxorzce,  oi  xocra  difovg 
Suuozuij  were  also  chosen  by  lot.  They  itinerated 
through  the  Demi,  and  decided  private  causes  where 
the  matter  in  dispute  did  not  exceed  ten  drachmae. 
On  such  questions  they  acted  not  only  as  judges  in 
judicio,  but  as  magistrates  in  jure. 

§ 9.  The  Court  of  the  Areopagites. 

260.  The  early  history  of  the  Areopagus,  and  of  the 
relation  Avhich  it  bore  to  the  court  of  the  Ephetse,  is 
very  obscure.  By  the  constitution  of  Solon,  the  court 
of  Areopagus  (/)  [iovli]  /)  ' Aquov  ndyov  or  iv  'Aquco 

ndyco),  which  consisted  of  men  who  had  filled  the  office 
of  Archon,  took  cognizance  of  wilful  murder  (com- 
mitted or  intended),  poisoning,  and  arson.  The  judges 
were  responsible,  and  might  be  arraigned  before  the 
Euthyni,  or  expelled  by  their  colleagues.  The  duties 
of  the  Areopagites  were  originally  much  more  ex- 
tended, their  court  being  not  merely  a dixaozrjQtov,  but 
also  a (iovXij , the  efforts  of  which  were  directed  to  the 
conservation  of  the  laws  and  constitution,  the  restraint 
of  popular  licentiousness  and  magisterial  delinquency, 
the  punishment  of  offences  against  good  order,  such  as 
idleness,  luxury,  debauchery,  &c.,  the  superintendence 
of  education,  and  the  maintenance  of  religion  in  its  in- 
tegrity and  purity.  261.  We  find,  after  the  time  of 
Pericles,  the  authority  of  this  court  greatly  circum- 
scribed by  a law  of  Ephialtis  ; and  although  it  resumed 
its  place  as  guardian  of  the  laws  after  the  time  of  the 
Thirty  Tyrants  (n.  c.  403),  it  was  prevented  by  the 
increasing  democratic  license  and  immorality  from 


ATHENS. 


107 


ever  recovering  its  former  power  and  influence  in  the 
state ; although  on  some  critical  occasions  it  assumed, 
or  was  invested  with,  extraordinary  authority. 

§ 10.  Court  of  the  Ejihgtce. 

262.  The  fifty-one  Ephgtse  (icphcu)  composed  a 
court,  the  organization  of  which  has  been  ascribed 
principally  to  Draco.  Their  jurisdiction  extended  to 
cases  of  homicide  (8iy.ni  cponnul)  of  inferior  atrocity. 
Their  places  of  meeting  varied,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  cause  to  be  tried ; for  instance,  charges  of  un- 
premeditated manslaughter  were  brought  before  them 
at  the  Palladium  {to  Im  IlaX).ad(xi),  and  of  justifiable 
homicide  at  the  Delphinium  (to  iv  JeXymqi).  The 
Ephetse  could  not  sentence  to  death,  the  severest 
penalty  inflicted  by  them  being  banishment  and  con- 
fiscation of  property.  In  later  times  their  power  seems 
to  have  been  considerably  reduced,  the  functions  of 
their  court  being  in  a great  measure  usurped  by  the 
Heliasts. 

§ 11.  Magistrates  with  Judicial  Hegemonia. 

263.  The  judges,  who  were  merely  charged  with 
inquiry  into  the  fact  and  with  the  management  of  the 
consequent  information,  were  also  in  most  cases  chosen 
by  lot,  but  it  depended  on  circumstances  connected 
with  the  process  itself,  what  magistrate  should  take 
charge  of  the  preliminary  proceedings  and  preside  at 
the  trial  (r/ye/j.ona  rov  ScyaazriQiov).  For  instance,  in 
cases  of  disputed  succession  and  family  quarrels  be- 
tween citizens,  this  duty  devolved  on  the  Archon ; in 
similar  disputes  between  resident  aliens  (ptfzoixoi)  and 
foreigners,  on  the  Polemarch  ; the  King  presided  at 
trials  relating  to  religious  questions,  as  well  as  all  sorts 
of  homicide ; and  the  Thesmothetas  in  all  other  public 
and  private  causes,  in  so  far  as  they  did  not  belong  to 
the  jurisdiction  of  any  particular  magistrate  ; each 
judge  having  a peculiar  precedence  within  his  own 
department. 


108 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


§ 12.  Acccusations. — Qualifications  of  Plaintiffs , 

264.  None  but  citizens  in  the  possession  of  full  po- 
litical rights  were  permitted  to  plead  in  person.  All 
others  must  be  represented  by  a person  so  qualified ; 
for  instance,  the  slave  by  his  master,  the  pizotxog  by  his 
Prostates,  women  and  minors  by  their  xvqiol  or  iniTQonoi, 
foreigners  by  a host,  &c. 

§ 13.  Public  and  Private  Actions. 

265.  Accusations  were  either  public  or  private. 
Public  accusations  (yguq pal)  were  those  in  which  it  was 
set  forth  that  the  state  bad  sustained  injury  either  im- 
mediately or  through  offences  committed  against  in- 
dividuals. The  line,  however,  between  public  and 
private  wrongs  does  not  seem  to  have  been  very 
strictly  drawn  ; for  in  many  instances  the  plaintiff  was 
at  liberty  to  prosecute  either  civilly  or  criminally ; in 
cases  of  theft,  for  example,  where  the  value  of  the  pro- 
perty stolen  exceeded  fifty  drachmae,  and  in  injuries  to 
the  person  (either  as  a Slxrj  atnl as  or  ynaqyrj  vfiotojg) . Any 
duly  qualified  citizen  might  bring  forward  a public 
complaint,  even  although  he  were  not  the  party  in- 
jured ; the  fine  imposed  in  such  cases  went  to  the  state : 
but  if  the  prosecutor  let  the  affair  drop,  or  failed  to 
establish  his  charge  by  the  vote  of  at  least  a fifth 
part  of  the  judges,  he  was  himself  fined  one  thousand 
drachmae,  and  rendered  for  ever  incapable  of  appear- 
ing as  prosecutor  in  a similar  action. 

§ 14.  Various  Forms  of  Public  Process. 

266.  The  general  term  for  a public  prosecution  is 
ygarprj,  in  contradistinction  to  8lxrj*  a private  complaint. 
It  had,  however,  various  names  according  to  its  dif- 
ferent forms  and  objects.  Thus,  besides  the  ygacpij 

4 The  Word  <51* ij  is,  however,  commonly  employed  to  express  all  sorts 
of  actions,  civil  as  well  as  criminal.  See  Dict’y  of  Antiquities,  under 
this  head. 


ATHENS, 


109 


(written  information)  properly  so  called,  we  have  the 
irdethg,  anaycoyrj  and  icprjyrjotg,  by  which  the  magistrate 
authorized  summary  proceedings  without  previous 
notice,  and  the  arrest  of  the  defendant  after  informa- 
tion received,  unless  three  sureties  were  found  for  his 
appearance.  We  read  also  of  the  cpaou tzoojolr'i,  do  ay* 
yeliu,  unoyQKCftj,  and  other  forms. 

§ 15.  Public  Prosecutions  considered  with  reference 
to  the  subject  of  Complaint. 

267.  Under  this  head  we  may  instance  the  follow- 
ing varieties  of  process.  Before  the  Archon,  ygucyl] 
ayupiov  and  inirQonrjg,  xaxcoasoog  against  parents,  Epi- 
cleri,  and  minors ; before  the  King,  aotjeiag,  qiovov ; 
before  the  Polemarch,  unQoaraaiov,  brought  against  a 
freedman  for  default  of  duty  to  the  citizen  to  whom 
he  owed  his  freedom  ; before  the  Thesmothetae,  vjQecog 
(the  more  serious  injuries  done  to  the  person ),  ttqoSo- 
alug,  xaruXvosaig  toil  drjpov ; before  the  Eleven,  xloniig, 
Xamodvaiag ; and  before  the  Strategi,  uezQatuag,  Xsitzo- 
za^lo  v. 

§ 16.  Private  Actions. 

268.  Those  actions  were  denominated  private, 
which  related  strictly  to  private  wrongs  or  disputes. 
Private  complaints  could  only  be  brought  forward  by 
those  who  had  sustained  the  injury,  or  who  appeared 
for  individuals  who  were  not  permitted  to  plead  in 
person.  In  all  such  actions  it  was  a rule  that  the 
mulct  or  damages  awarded  by  the  court  should  be  paid 
to  the  plaintiff ; and  that,  in  the  event  of  the  proceed- 
ings being  declared  frivolous,  the  defendant  should 
receive  one-sixth  part  of  the  sum  in  dispute  (bimjElid) 
by  way  of  indemnification  for  his  loss  of  time  and 
labour. 

§ 17.  Private  Actions  considered  with  reference  to  the 
subject. 

269.  The  following  are  examples  of  private  actions: 
before  the  Archon,  complaints  affecting  family  rights, 


no 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


and  the  disputes  of  the  Choragi  ; before  the  Thesmo- 
thetae,  the  Slxtj  pkapijs,  and  all  sorts  of  complaints  re- 
lating to  the  protection  of  property ; and  before  the 
Forty,  the  hlyp  aixiag  and  similar  causes. 


Legal  Proceedings. 

§ 18.  Legal  Proceedings. 

270.  The  first  step  in  public  as  well  as  private 
actions  was  a summons  (KX^-<Tfb*  or  nQoxlijaig,  — in  jus 
vocatio)  from  the  plaintiff  (6  dimxcov)  to  the  defendant, 
calling  on  him  to  appear  at  some  public  place  in  pre- 
sence of  witnesses  (xhjtijQsg).  It  was  only  in  parti- 
cular cases  that  a vadimonium,  or  security  for  the 
appearance  of  the  defendant  (6  yevymv),  was  required ; 
nor  was  recourse  had  to  the  unuymyrj  (i.  e.  the  accused 
was  not  taken  at  once  before  a court  of  justice)  unless 
he  were  taken  in  the  act.  It  was  requisite  that  the 
accusation  in  writing  (fy.).r^a,  Xijhg,  in  criminal  prose- 
cutions should  be  laid,  together  with  the  decla- 

ration of  the  witnesses  to  the  summons,  before  the 
presiding  magistrate,  who  then  examined  whether  the 
citation  was  in  due  form,  or  whether  the  party  sum- 
moned had  reasonable  ground  for  taking  an  exception. 

271.  In  private  actions  (with  the  exception  of  those 
that  related  to  injuries  to  the  person ) both  parties  were 
required  to  deposit  security  (pQvzavuct,  sacr amentum), 
varying  in  amount  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
action.  This  deposit  was  always  repaid  to  the  suc- 
cessful party  by  the  loser.  In  criminal  proceedings 
we  read  of  only  a trifling  jragdardaig,  which  was  de- 
posited by  the  prosecutor.  We  read  also  of  other  dues 
called  the  naQaxuzajoX rj  and  the  naQafjoXov. 

§ 19.  The  same  subject  continued. — Preparatory 
Pleadings  before  the  Magistrate. 

272.  The  next  step  was  the  previous  examination 
(« vdxQiaig  zijg  Sixijg)  by  the  magistrate,  who  settled  the 


ATHENS, 


111 


issue  to  be  tried,  and  received  the  depositions  of  the 
parties  on  oath  (uptco^iooiu,  Suoixoaia).  Then  the  proofs 
were  collected  and  preserved  (in  an  tyjvog)  in  readiness 
for  trial  of  the  cause.  Under  this  head  were  classed 
such  extracts  from  the  laws  as  were  necessary  for  de- 
termining the  legal  points  that  were  involved  in  the 
question  (these  were  to  be  read  out  before  the  judges) ; 
all  informations  relating  to  the  case,  the  depositions  of 
witnesses,  either  present  in  court  (jiuqtvqiou)  or  absent 
(bfutQTVQiai)  ; the  examinations  of  slaves  belonging  to 
either  party  (which  was  conducted  by  means  of  tor- 
ture, uoavog , and  was  considered  very  important),  with 
various  other  papers.  273.  This  preliminary  examina- 
tion often  occupied  a considerable  time,  especially 
when  there  was  an  vnwiioglu  (an  application  for  delay 
founded  upon  an  affidavit).  There  were,  however, 
some  sorts  of  private  actions,  which  in  later  times 
must  be  decided  within  thirty  days  after  the  laying  of 
the  information  (Siy.cu  s/xiir^oi).  During  the  dvaxgiaig  in 
private  actions  the  proceedings  might  either  be  set 
aside  by  a compromise  between  the  parties,  or  quashed 
by  the  magistrate,  if  one  of  the  parties  could  fully  sus- 
tain his  allegation  by  means  of  witnesses. 

§ 20.  Proceedings  before  the  Court. 

274.  On  the  day  appointed  for  the  trial  (/}  xvqi'u), 
the  judges  chosen  by  lot  by  the  Thesmothet®  took  their 
seats,  and  the  parties  were  called  into  court.  If  the 
defendant  were  absent  without  reasonable  cause,  he 
was  declared  in  default,  and  judgment  entered  against 
him  (tQquijv  xMudixvfsiv).  By  the  law  each  party  was 
required  to  plead  his  own  cause.  They  might,  how- 
ever, obtain  the  assistance  of  ovvr/yoQoi,  and  often  were 
furnished  with  written  speeches  by  rhetoricians.  In 
these  addresses  every  device  was  tried  for  exciting 
compassion  and  working  on  the  feelings  of  the  judges. 
The  time  which  they  were  allowed  to  occupy  was  in 
most  trials  measured  by  the  Clepsydra  QJysiv  rai  i/tai 
vdcczi,  a phrase  employed  by  the  orators).  Dur  ng  the 


112 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


speech  all  the  proofs  were  adduced  and  explainer,  the 
Clepsydra  being  meanwhile  stopt ; at  the  same  time 
the  witnesses  were  personally  present.  275.  The 
pleadings  being  ended,  a verdict  was  given  by  means 
of  pebbles  ( xpijcpoi ),  which  were  white  or  black,  whole 
or  pierced.  If  the  votes  were  equal,  it  was  considered 
a verdict  of  acquittal.  Finally  the  sentence  of  the 
magistrates  was  published.  If  the  action  were  aywp 
TifitjTos5  (that  is  to  say,  a case  in  which  a discretionary 
power  was  left  with  the  judges,  either  because  the  law 
had  provided  no  definite  punishment,  or  because  it 
permitted  them  to  choose  between  two  penalties,  or  to 
fix  the  amount  of  damages),  a verdict  of  guilty  having 
been  returned  (lj  7iqc6t)]  xpijcpog),  the  defendant  was  al- 
lowed to  oppose  his  TiixTjatg  to  that  of  the  prosecutor 
(jifiua&ai  and  uvTm[taa&ai),  and  the  judges  by  a second 
vote  (?)  Shvzi-'qu  \pi{(pog)  decided  between  them  (rqnw), 
or  in  some  cases  increased  the  penalty  (nQoaTinav). 
This  was  the  form  before  the  court  of  the  Heliasts. 
The  practice  before  the  Dieetetse  was  somewhat  dif- 
ferent ; still  more  so  was  that  before  the  Forty,  who 
acted  also  as  magistrates. 

§ 21.  Form  of  process  in  Trials  for  Murder. 

276.  The  duty  of  prosecuting  in  cases  of  murder 
devolved  on  the  nearest  relations.  As  soon  as  the 
information  was  laid  before  the  fuadevg,  the  proceed- 
ings commenced  with  a TrgoQQrjaig,  that  is,  a proclama- 
tion that  the  accused  should  abstain  from  approaching 
all  public  and  sacred  spots,  into  which  no  murderer 
was  permitted  to  enter.  The  king  then  instituted 
an  dvdy.Qiaig  (cf.  273),  in  which  it  was  settled  whether 
the  case  should  be  tried  before  the  Areopagites  or  be- 
fore the  Ephetse  (262)  (subject  to  such  exceptions  to 
the  court,  as  might  afterwards  occur).  These  inves- 
tigations were  continued  for  three  months,  one  in  each 
month,  and  in  the  fourth  the  matter  came  into  court. 

5 The  opposite  to  this  was  uyui/  <myijr<5s,  or  the  trial  of  offences,  of 
which  the  penalties  were  fixed  by  law. 


ATHENS. 


113 


§ 22.  The  subject  continued. 

277.  The  court  of  the  Areopagites  was  held  in  the 
open  air  under  the  presidency  of  the  Basileus.  A sol- 
emn oath  was  administered  to  both  parties  together 
with  their  witnesses.  The  accuser  and  the  accused 
were  required  each  to  address  the  court  twice,  in  per- 
son, and  without  any  attempt  to  work  upon  the  feelings 
of  the  judges.  After  the  first  pleading  (fiera.  i'ov  tiqote- 
qov  loyov)  the  accused  might  go  into  exile  without  suf- 
fering any  other  penalty  than  the  confiscation  of  his 
property.  On  the  third  day  the  members  of  the  court 
voted.  If  the  votes  were  equal,  the  prisoner  was  ac- 
quitted. The  obligation  to  prosecute  ceased,  if  the 
murdered  man  had  before  his  death  forgiven  the 
murderer;  the  relations  might  also,  at  least  in  cases 
of  unpremeditated  homicide,  themselves  abandon  the 
prosecution.  The  form  of  proceeding  before  the  court 
of  the  Ephgtae  is  unknown  to  us,  but  probably  differed 
very  little  from  that  which  we  have  just  described. 

§ 23.  Judgment. — Means  of  enforcing  penalties. 

278.  In  private  actions  various  means  might  be  em- 
ployed for  compelling  the  condemned  party  to  submit 
to  the  sentence.  If  a penalty  were  imposed  or  damages 
awarded,  the  defendant,  if  he  were  vneor^sQog  (did  not 
observe  the  day  of  payment),  might  be  distrained  on, 
or  sued  in  a dho]  the  loss  of  which  would  subject 

him  to  a penalty  equal  to  that  for  which  he  was  cast 
in  the  original  action.  Foreigners  might  be  compelled 
to  give  bail,  or  to  remain  in  prison  until  they  paid.  In 
public  actions,  those  who  were  sentenced  to  a fine 
became  url/xoi,  as  being  debtors  to  the  state,  and  were 
obliged  to  find  sureties,  in  order  to  secure  themselves 
from  arrest.  After  the  expiration  of  the  term  (the 
ninth  Prytany),  the  penalty  was  doubled,  and  the  state 
was  at  last  permitted  to  indemnify  itself  out  of  the 
defaulter’s  property.  Persons  condemned  to  death  or 
imprisonment  were  handed  over  to  the  Eleven  (238). 


114 


MANUAL  OP  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


§ 24.  Appeals. 

279.  Appeals  (eqieats)  were  allowed  only  from  the 
Disetetae  to  the  Heliasts.  None  was  permitted  from 
the  decision  of  the  Areopagites  or  the  EphStae ; still 
less  could  an  appeal,  properly  so  called,  be  made  from 
the  Heliasts,  since  the  judges  in  this  court,  as  repre- 
senting the  supreme  power  in  the  state,  were  awnsv- 
■Qvvoi ; but  their  judgment  might  beset  aside  ( uvaSixos 
8U 7j,  Tzuhrdixla),  if  any  one  could  prove,  either  that  he 
had  not  been  summoned,  or  that  his  absence  had  been 
involuntary  or  without  any  culpable  neglect ; or  lastly, 
in  certain  cases,  if  he  could  prove  by  a dlxrj  xpevdofia- 
QtvQimv,  that  the  sentence  was  founded  on  false  testi- 
mony. 

§ 25.  Punishments. 

280.  Punishments  affected  either  the  person  or  the 
property  of  the  condemned  (naOsiv  tj  anoTtaat).  The 
first  comprehended  not  only  capital  punishment  and 
imprisonment,  but  also  banishment  and  Atimia. 

§ 26.  Atimia. 

281.  Atimia  did  not  in  itself  render  the  person  on 

whom  it  was  inflicted  infamous  ; it  was  simply  a par- 
tial or  complete  deprivation  of  political  privileges. 
There  were  three  varieties  of  Atimia.  The  first  in- 
volved the  loss  of  all  political  rights,  and  the  confisca- 
tion of  property  ; the  second,  the  same  without  confis- 
cation ; the  third,  the  loss  of  several  peculiar  privileges, 
such  as  the  right  of  appearing  before  a court  of  justice 
to  make  a particular  kind  of  public  accusation.  Some- 
times it  was  used  as  a means  of  compelling  state  debt- 
ors to  discharge  their  obligations,  and,  as  such,  was 
inherited  by  the  children  of  the  defaulter  ; at  others  it 
was  inflicted  as  a punishment  for  certain  offences,  as 
theft,  bribery,  cowardice,  desertion,  false- witness,  im- 
piety, extravagance,  injuries  against  magistrates,  false 
or  frivolous  accusations  in  public  affairs,  &c.  282. 


ATHENS. 


115 


In  certain  cases  Atimia  might  be  inflicted  without  the 
intervention  of  a judicial  sentence ; and  the  exercise 
of  any  of  the  privileges  which  it  suppressed  might  be 
severely  punished,  sometimes  even  with  death.  The 
punishment  called  Steliteusis,  or  the  erection  of  a pillar 
with  the  offender’s  name  inscribed  on  it,  differed  from 
Atimia  in  its  necessarily  rendering  infamous  those  on 
whom  it  was  inflicted. 

§ 27.  Other  hinds  of  Punishment. 

283.  Imprisonment  was  employed  either  as  a means 
of  compulsion  against  farmers  of  the  revenue  or  other 
public  debtors  who  were  unable  to  find  such  security 
as  was  required,  or  to  pay  some  fine  that  had  been 
imposed.  It  was  also  sometimes  employed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  securing  the  persons  of  accused  and  condemn- 
ed offenders,  but  rarely  as  an  independent  punishment. 
Confiscation  was  added  to  other  severe  penalties  as  an 
aggravation ; to  banishment,  for  instance  (not  to  the 
Ostracism),  and  to  capital  punishment  for  certain 
offences.  It  must  be  distinguished  from  the  sale  of  a 
defaulter’s  property  in  order  to  indemnify  the  state. 
284.  When  sentence  of  banishment  was  pronounced,  a 
time  was  fixed  within  which  the  offender  must  quit 
the  country,  or  be  liable  to  suffer  death  at  the  hands  of 
any  one  who  chose  to  slay  him.  It  was  inflicted,  in 
conjunction  with  confiscation,  on  those  who  attempted 
to  commit  murder ; whilst  unpremeditated  homicide 
was  punished  merely  with  a year’s  imprisonment 
(anenavTiofiog)  without  confiscation.  Slavery  was  in- 
flicted as  a punishment  on  those  whose  names  were 
surreptitiously  inserted  in  the  roll  of  citizens,  and  on 
Metoeci  who  neglected  to  pay  the  alien-tax  ( nszoUiot •) 
or  to  procure  a Prostates.  285.  Capital  punishment 
might  in  certain  cases  be  inflicted  by  the  injured  party 
on  the  spot ; for  instance,  on  robbers  detected  in  the 
act  at  night,  and  on  adulterers.  As  a punishment  for 
offences  against  the  state,  it  was  generally  carried  into 
execution  by  compelling  the  offender  to  drink  of  a poi- 


116 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


soned  cup  (xwveiov),  or  by  hurling  him  down  a preci- 
pice. It  was  inflicted  for  treason  or  attempting  to 
overthrow  the  democracy  (xaraXvatg  rov  dlj^ov),  for 
treachery  ( nQoSoaiu ),  as  in  the  case  of  deserters  (uvro- 
HoXla),  for  denial  of  the  state  religion  and  disparage- 
ment of  the  mysteries,  and  for  premeditated  murder. 

§ 28.  Falling  off  in  the  Administration  of  Justice. 

286.  With  the  general  decline  of  morals  the  admin- 
istration of  justice  also  degenerated.  The  eagerness 
with  which  men  sought  the  office  of  judge,  arose  partly 
from  the  power  which  it  gave  them  of  humbling  the 
rich,  partly  from  the  pecuniary  advantages  which  had 
been  attached  to  it  ever  since  the  time  of  Pericles  (b. 
c.  440),  and  had  been  augmented  by  Cleon  (b.  c.  424). 
After  a time  the  power  of  the  multitude  degenerated 
into  a complete  judicial  despotism.  Selfishness  and 
avarice  found  a rich  supply  of  food  in  the  crowd  of 
actions  which  the  litigious  spirit  of  the  Athenians,  and 
the  disputes  of  the  allies,  were  perpetually  pouring  into 
the  courts ; whilst  an  ample  held  was  afforded  for  the 
practice  of  sycophancy,  chicanery,  and  pettifogging. 
287.  The  rich  were  condemned  for  the  sake  of  penal- 
ties, which  went  into  the  public  treasury,  and  thus  pro- 
moted the  interests  of  individuals.  The  judges  were 
accessible  to  bribery;  the  sycophants  laid  their  infor- 
mations, partly  for  the  purpose  of  extorting  money 
from  the  rich,  partly  that  they  might  find  profitable 
employment  for  the  people,  whose  levity,  selfishness, 
and  readiness  to  receive  false  accusations  they  turned 
to  good  account.  As  instances  of  this  wretched  ad- 
ministration of  the  laws,  we  may  mention  the  trial  of 
the  Hermocopidge  (b.  c.  422),  and  the  condemnation 
of  the  generals  who  were  arraigned  after  the  battle  of 
the  Arginusian  islands  (b.  c.  406). 6 


Consult  Thirlwall’s  Hist,  of  Greece,  vo  . i.  pp.  411  and  475. 


ATHENS. 


117 


B . Religion. 

§ 29.  The  Gods.  Temples. 

288.  The  chief  deity  of  Athens  was  Athene  the 
protectress  of  the  city  (‘A&tjru  nohug,  rj  -deog),  whose 
temple  stood  on  the  Acropolis  with  the  chapels  of  Erec- 
theus  and  Pandrosus.  Athene  Sciras  had  a temple  at 
Phalerum.  They  also  worshipped  Zeus  (nohevg, 

&c.),  Demeter  and  Persephone  (rco  tfeco,  ij  yfoiyj  xul  rj 
y.oQt]),  Apollo,  as  the  god  of  the  Ionic  race  ( tzutqi^os ),  to 
whose  sanctuary  at  Delos  Theoriae  (sacred  embassies) 
were  sent ; Artemis  (Brauronia,  Munychia,  Agrotera), 
Dionysus,  Hephaestus,  Aphrodite,  Hestia,  Hermes,  Po- 
seidon (Erichthonius),  Nemesis,  the  Eumenides  (oeyval 
&eal),  and  others.  Among  the  national  heroes  we  find 
Erectheus,  Triptolemus,  Cecrops  with  his  daughters, 
Theseus,  and  in  later  times  Codrus,  Harmodius,  and 
Aristogiton.  289.  The  expenses  of  religious  worship 
were  defrayed  from  the  rents  of  estates  belonging  to 
the  Temples,  and  a per-centage  on  fines.  Much  of  the 
outlay  was  provided  without  cost  to  the  state  (see  upon 
the  Aurovoylca,  321).  The  Temples  [vuol,  legd ) were 
numerous  and  elegant.  They  were  generally  sur- 
rounded by  a colonnade,  and  stood  in  an  enclosure 
separated  from  profane  ground  by  an  egxog  or  neglfiolog. 
In  this  enclosure  was  the  altar  (ftdj/uog).  In  the  interior 
of  the  Temple  (arjxog)  was  the  statue  of  the  god  (dyal- 
pa),  and  the  sanctuary  ( ddvrov , filyugov,  uvuxtodov).  The 
Temples  were  generally  adorned  with  offerings  ( uva&rj - 
y iazu ).  Many  of  them  (the  temple  of  Theseus,  for  in- 
stance,) were  Asylums,  i.  e.  places  of  refuge  for  per- 
sons who  had  transgressed  the  laws  (uovla). 

§ 30.  Festivals.  The  Panathencea  and  Dionysia. 

290.  A great  number  of  festivals  were  celebrated 
at  Athens.  The  most  important  were  the  Panathenasa, 
Dionysia,  Thesmophoria,  and  Eleusinia. 

1.  The  Panathenaea  (t«  rJuvaSrjvata),  held  in  honour 


118 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


of  Athene,  and  in  commemoration  of  the  union  of  the 
people  in  one  commonwealth,  were  two  feasts,  ptxQct 
and  fieynla.  The  first  was  celebrated  annually,  the 
other  every  five  years  (ntvTtvrjQig),  in  the  month  of 
Hecatombaeon.  The  chief  solemnity  at  this  festival 
was  a grand  procession  ( no/im f)  to  the  Acropolis,  for 
the  purpose  of  presenting  a richly  embroidered  Peplos 
to  Athene.  At  this  procession,  in  which  all  took  part, 
the  Metceci  rendered  their  services  as  oxiudrjqioQot,  v8qiu- 
qiOQoi,  and  axccyijcpoQoi.  There  were  also  contests,  at 
first  gymnastic  (probably  from  b.  c.  556),  and  subse- 
quently musical,  which  were  succeeded  by  sacrifices. 
The  prize  was  a jar  of  oil  made  from  the  fruit  of  the 
sacred  olive-tree  on  the  Acropolis.  In  the  evening 
there  was  a torch-race  (XapuraSriqiOQta,  Xct/ina8t]8gi  fxht). 

2.  The  Dionysia  (ra  2 hovvma ) were  four  festivals  in 
honour  of  Dionysus,  (a)  The  little  or  rural  Dionysia 
in  the  month  Poseidon  (to.  fti-xga  z hovvaia , r«  xaz  aygova). 
( b ) The  Lenaea  (ra  Aiyvcuu),  in  the  month  Gamelion. 
Each  of  these  festivals  lasted  one  day.  (c)  The  An- 
thesteria  (pit  ’AvOsaTr/Qia)  in  the  month  Anthesterion, 
three  days.  ( d ) The  great  or  city  Dionysia  (ru  f/syala, 
7 u tv  aa7ti),  which  continued  for  four  days,  in  the  month 
Elaphebolion.  Theatrical  representations  were  given 
at  the  great  and  little  Dionysia,  and  the  Lenaea.  The 
Lenaea  were  under  the  superintendence  of  the  Basileus, 
whose  wife  (^aaiXiaau)  offered  certain  sacrifices.  The 
great  Dionysia  were  conducted  by  the  Archon.  (On 
the  Attic  months,  cf.  343.) 

§31.  Thesmophoria.  Eleusinia,  Festivals  continued,  fyc, 

291.  3.  The  Thesmophoria  ( ra  ’ OtapocpoQiu)  were 
celebrated  in  the  month  Pyanepsion,  probably  for  five 
days,  in  honour  of  Demeter,  the  goddess  of  harvest. 
They  consisted  principally  of  a procession  of  matrons 
to  the  temple  of  Demeter  Thesmophoros  in  'AXiyiovs  (an 
Attic  demus ),  and  their  return  to  Athens. 

4.  The  Eleusinia  (r a ’ EXevalna ) were  two  feasts,  the 
lesser  and  the  greater,  also  in  honour  of  Demeter  and 


ATHENS. 


119 


her  daughter  ( y.oQtj ).  The  lesser  served  also  as  a pre- 
paration for  those  who  were  to  be  initiated  (livotcu, 
tiv8io&ai),  and  was  held  yearly  in  the  month  Antheste- 
rion  at  Agree  on  the  Ilissus.  The  greater  Eleusinia 
seem  also  to  have  been  celebrated  once  a year,  during 
nine  days  in  the  month  Boedromion,  with  purifications, 
sacrifices,  and  processions  to  Eleusis  Claxyog,  laxya&iv), 
as  preparatory  to  the  Holy  Spectacle  (avzoipia,  inomai). 
The  initiation  was  open  to  all  Hellenes.  The  priests 
(IcQocfiuvtou)  were  taken  from  the  Eumolpidse,  who  had 
also  a certain  jurisdiction  in  religious  matters. 

Besides  these  were  a number  of  infei'ior  festivals, 
such  as  the  OaQyqhu,  the  IJQO^ij&eia,  the  'HcpaioTEia,  the 
/hjXicc,  to  which  Theorise  were  sent,  and  many  others. 

§ 32.  Priests  and  Worship. 

292.  Of  the  priesthoods,  some  were  accessible  to  all 
whose  fathers  and  grandfathers  had  been  citizens ; 
others  were  confined  to  certain  sacerdotal  families,  the 
Eumolpidse  and  Ceryces  for  instance,  who  were  em- 
ployed in  the  service  of  the  Eleusinian  Demeter  ; and  the 
Eteobutadae  in  that  of  Athene  Polias.  It  was  requisite 
that  all  priests  should  be  of  legitimate  birth,  without 
bodily  defect,  and  of  unblameable  life  and  conversa- 
tion. These  particulars  were  ascertained  by  a Doki- 
masia.  They  were  generally  elected  by  lot,  sometimes 
from  a reduced  number  of  candidates  previously  nomi- 
nated. The  time  of  their  continuance  in  office  varied. 
Their  duties  consisted  in  preparing  such  sacrifices  as 
were  either  prescribed  by  usage,  or  enjoined  by  the 
oracle,  or  by  the  people ; in  taking  care  that  the  ar- 
rangements and  interests  of  the  Temple  were  observed 
by  individuals  who  brought  private  offerings,  and  in 
calling  in  and  taking  charge  of  the  Temple-revenues, 
of  which  they  were  required  to  render  an  account  to 
the  Logistag  and  Euthyni.  293.  The  priests  themselves 
received  a share  of  the  income,  particularly  of  the 
sacrifices,  but  in  all  other  respects  they  seem  to  have 
borne  the  usual  burdens  in  common  with  their  fellow- 


120 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIOUITIES. 


citizens.  Many  religious  solemnities  were  under  the 
charge  of  the  magistrates ; for  instance,  the  king  was 
intrusted  with  the  arrangement  of  the  Eleusinian  and 
Lensean  festivals,  and  the  Archon  with  that  of  the 
Dionysia  and  Thargelia.  The  other  officers  employed 
in  matters  relating  to  public  worship  were  the  BnifuXrjzal 
zuv  nvOTtiQtun’,  zuv  /hovvatmr,  the  zu/jIui  zwv  hoav  yQrjfxd- 
zav,  the  three  s^r/yrjzal,  who  decided  legal  questions 
respecting  the  privileges  of  the  priests,  and  interpreted 
prodigies  and  dioarj/ilai,  several  sorts  of  Ieqotzoioi,  who 
officiated  at  the  sacrifices,  the  flowveu,  elected  by  the 
people,  and  charged  with  the  purchase  of  beasts  for 
sacrifice,  the  ten  Athlothetes  (d&lodizcu)  or  judges  of 
the  gymnastic  and  musical  contests  at  the  Panathenaea, 
with  many  others. 

§ 33.  Decline  of  Religion. 

294.  Although  the  state  watched  over  religion,  and 
punished  unbelief  and  blasphemy  with  great  severity ; 
and  public  worship,  as  wealth  and  the  love  of  splendour 
increased,  was  embellished with  the  richest  works  of  art; 
yet  the  belief  in  their  traditionary  deities  was  gradually 
undermined  in  the  schools  of  the  philosophers,  and  a 
sort  of  free-thinking  spirit  combined  with  superstition 
divested  their  splendid  ceremonial  of  its  religious  sig- 
nificance, whilst  it  retained  the  mere  outward  form  for 
the  sake  of  its  beauty  and  magnificence.  Religious 
worship  was  thus  degraded  into  a mere  intellectual 
pastime,  or  means  of  amusement  to  the  spectators  of 
its  works  of  art,  its  choruses  and  dramas,  or  at  most  a 
device  for  relieving  the  wants  of  the  people7  or  supply- 
ing them  with  sensual  gratification  from  the  magnitude 
and  richness  of  its  sacrifices. 


7 From  the  donations  of  meat  usual  at  sacrifices. 


ATHENS. 


121 


C.  Military  Affairs 
§ 34.  Military  service. 

295.  By  the  constitution  of  Solon  only  the  first 
three  classes  (177)  were  required  to  serve  as  soldiers, 
the  rich  on  horseback,  and  the  rest  as  heavy-armed 
infantry  ( onllzai ).  These  classes  were  selected  for 
regular  military  service  sx  xazaloyov.  The  Thetes 
served  only  as  light-armed  soldiers,  seamen  or  marines 
(sm^cczai).  Similar  duties  were  also  generally  per- 
formed by  the  Metceci.  Slaves  were  never  taken 
except  in  cases  of  extreme  necessity.  In  later  times 
we  often  find  the  Thetes  and  Metceci  serving  as  Hop- 
lites.  296.  Citizens  served  from  their  eighteenth  to 
their  twentieth  year  as  neQinoloi  within  the  Attic  terri- 
tory. The  regular  period  of  service  was  from  the 
twentieth  to  the  sixtieth  year,  but  the  maximum  age 
varied  each  time  according  to  circumstances.  By  the 
levy,  which  was  founded  on  the  division  into  Phylse, 
the  soldiers  were  distributed  into  rdzsts  and  lo/ot. 
From  the  time  of  Pericles  the  soldiers  received  pay, 
varying  in  amount  at  different  times.  The  usual  wages 
of  common  soldiers  were  two  obols  daily,  and  the  same 
sum  for  necessaries,  when  they  were  not  furnished  in 
kind  ; but  they  often  received  much  more.  297.  Offi- 
cers received  double ; the  cavalry  three  times  as  much 
as  the  Hoplites,  and  the  commander-in-chief  quadruple. 
As  a general  rule,  the  soldiers  were  required  to  forage 
for  themselves,  which  was  by  no  means  difficult  in  the 
earlier  times'when  war  was  carried  on  only  during  the 
summer  months.  In  the  more  important  campaigns, 
however,  and  expeditions  (especially  by  sea),  the  state 
supplied  all  sorts  of  provisions ; but  wherever  it  was 
possible,  the  soldiers  received  money,  and  bought  for 
themselves  whatever  the  market  afforded  ( ayoQuv 
nuor/yn). 

§ 35.  Infantry.  Cavalry. 

298.  The  Infantry  was  composed  of  heavy-armed 
soldiers  or  Hoplites,  whose  naronUa  consisted  of  a hej- 
6 


122 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


met,  coat  of  mail,  large  shield  (onlov),  lance  and  sword  ; 
and  light-armed  (ifiilol,  yvjivoi).  An  intermediate  corps 
were  the  j ntlzuazal,  organized  by  Iphicrates  : their  arms 
consisted  of  a javelin  and  light  shield  (ntlzrj).  From 
the  time  of  Themistocles,  Athens  maintained  a stand- 
ing body  of  three  hundred  cavalry,  which  was  after- 
wards increased  to  six  hundred,  then  to  one  thousand, 
and  at  last,  including  the  Hippotoxotee,  to  twelve  hun- 
dred men,  who  received  each  a xaruazuaig  for  the  pur- 
chase of  his  horse,  which  was  also  kept  for  him  by  the 
state.  During  the  Peloponnesian  war  many  mercenary 
light  troops  were  employed,  armed  after  a fashion  un- 
known at  Athens  (for  instance,  Peltastse  from  Thrace, 
and  archers  from  Crete).  At  a later  period  mercenary 
troops  were  very  commonly  employed  here  as  in  other 
states. 

§ 36.  Officers.  Generals  (ozQozqyoi). 

299.  The  most  important  officers  were  the  Strategi 
(nzQUTijyoC),  who  were  ten  in  number,  annually  chosen 
by  the  votes  of  the  people,  subject  to  the  especial  con- 
dition that  they  should  be  lawfully  married  and  pos- 
sessors of  landed  property.  In  ancient  times  they  all 
took  the  field,  and  commanded  each  a day  in  turn. 
Afterwards,  when  the  original  objects  of  their  appoint- 
ment began  to  be  more  and  more  forgotten,  seldom 
more  than  two  or  three  w^ere  sent  out.  In  this  case 
either  one  acted  as  commander-in-chief,  or  the  com- 
mand was  divided  equally  among  them  all,  or  each  was 
chief  at  his  own  station.  Frequently,  however,  we 
find  armies  commanded  by  leaders  who  were  not  Stra- 
tegi. 300.  Together  with  the  command  of  the  forces 
the  Strategi  had  also  other  important  duties.  Besides 
being  charged  with  the  management  of  all  the  taxes 
and  civic  services  relating  to  war,  they  superintended 
the  fitting  out  of  the  lleet  and  the  levying  of  soldiers, 
and  had  jurisdiction  in  cases  of  military  offences,  such 
as  aazQazsi'a,  StiXia,  Xsmozd^iov  :s  it  was  their  business 


8 This  word  :curs  in  the  Gen.  with  <5i*> ? 


ATHENS. 


123 


to  provide  for  the  security  of  the  land,  sea,  and  fron- 
tier. They  had  the  power  of  calling  the  people  to- 
gether to  decide  on  questions  connected  with  war. 
The  office  was  highly  esteemed,  especially  after  the 
Persian  war,  on  account  of  the  splendid  talents  of  the 
men  by  whom  it  was  filled,  such  as  Miltiades,  Themis- 
tocles,  and  Cimon. 

§ 37.  Taxiarchs,  Lochagi,  Hipparchs,  Phylarclis, 
Peripolarchs. 

301.  The  Taxiarchs  (ra&uQx°i)  were  ten  in  num- 
ber, chosen  by  the  people  by  Chirotonia.  Each  of 
them  commanded  his  own  rd^ig,  and  took  part  in  the 
councils  held  by  the  Strategi  (299).  The  smaller  divi- 
sions of  the  army  were  commanded  by  Lochagi  (Aoxu- 
yof),  and  other  inferior  officers.  The  Peripoli  (296) 
had  their  own  nsQinolaQxoi.  The  cavalry  were  com- 
manded by  their  own  Hipparchs  (i7muQ-/pi),  of  whom 
there  were  two  chosen  annually,  and  by  ten  Phylarchs 
(qpi 'iluQyoi),  subject  in  both  instances  to  the  control  of 
the  Strategi.  In  time  of  peace  they  conducted  the 
exercises  of  the  cavalry,  took  the  lead  in  religious  pro- 
cessions, and  superintended  the  recruiting  for  the  cav- 
alry from  those  who  were  qualified  by  their  census  to 
serve  in  that  corps. 

§ 38.  Manner  of  making  War. 

302.  During  the  period  of  hostilities  with  Persia, 
the  Greeks  learnt  to  conduct  their  campaigns  on  a 
larger  scale  ; and  subsequently  in  their  various  foreign 
and  domestic  wars  many  sorts  of  fortifications  were 
erected,  and  improvements  introduced.  Miltiades  had 
already  employed  engines  in  the  siege  of  Paros  ; but  it 
was  in  the  Persian  war  that  the  art  of  attacking  forti- 
fied places  made  the  most  rapid  advances,  and  at  a 
later  period  obtained  its  highest  degree  of  perfection 
under  Demetrius  Poliorcetes.  303.  Several  sorts  of 
engines  (j urj^avai)  and  works  are  mentioned  by  authors  ; 


124 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIOUITIES. 


Such  as  the  ycofta,  nvQyoi,  ytlavt],  testudo  (for  the  defence 
of  the  besiegers),  y.t>ing,  aries  (in  Philip’s  time),  xarans- 
Itcu  and  h&nffila  (machines  for  hurling  stones  and 
other  missiles).  The  state  took  especial  care  to  excite 
men  to  deeds  of  bravery  by  the  hope  of  reward.  The 
wounded  were  attended  at  the  public  expense,  the 
dead  celebrated  in  funeral  orations  (Xoyoi  imrucpioi),  and 
their  children  educated  by  the  state.  On  the  other 
hand  cowards  were  punished  with  Atimia. 

§ 39.  The  Fleet. 

304.  The  Athenians  were  indebted  for  the  nucleus 
of  their  fleet  to  Themistocles,  at  whose  suggestion 
twenty  triremes  were  built  every  year ; the  merit  of 
augmenting  it  is  due  to  Cimon  and  Pericles.  At  the 
battle  of  Salamis  it  consisted  of  two  hundred  large 
ships,  and  at  a later  period  of  nearly  four  hundred. 
Their  ships  of  war  (vtjse  (taxQut),  which  were  managed 
by  oars,  especially  in  manoeuvring,  were  generally  tri- 
remes ( TQtrjQeig ).  The  crew  (nXqnana)  consisted  of 

about  two  hundred  men  ; viz.  at  least  one  hundred  and 
seventy  rowers  (vavrai  and  ighai ; sixty-two  on  the 
upper  bank,  and  fifty-four  on  each  of  the  lower  ones) ; 
and  marines  or  sea-soldiers  (inipazui)  armed  in  a pecu- 
liar manner ; besides  archers  on  board  some  ships.  305. 
On  board  transports  {csTQcnaotiSeg,  onXuuycoyoi),  the  pro- 
portions were  of  course  different,  the  number  of  sea- 
men being  reduced  as  low  as  possible.  At  a later 
period  (about  b.  c.  330),  they  began  to  employ  larger 
ships,  quadriremes  and  quinqueremes.  Among  the 
smaller  vessels  were  Triaconters  ( zQiay.ovzoQoi ),  and 
Penteconters  ( 7tevzt]y.6vzoQoi ),  vessels  with  thirty  and 
fifty  oars.  There  were  also  ships  of  burden  (oXxccSsg), 
and  small  pinnaces  or  boats  (xs'Xt/zeg,  rzXoia).  The 
rowers  were  generally  taken  from  the  poorest  class  of 
citizens  and  Metoeci,  and  were  sometimes  even  slaves. 

§ 40.  Naval  Officers — Equipment — Engagements. 

306.  The  legislation  in  naval  affairs  belonged  of 
course  to  the  people,  but  the  general  management  was 


ATHENS. 


125 


in  the  hands  of  the  fiovh].  The  chief  command  was 
vested  in  the  Strategi  (the  admiral’s  ship  was  called 
}]  oTQUTrjy'ig  vavg).  To  them,  also,  in  conjunction  with 
officers  especially  appointed  to  that  duty  (unoaroXeig), 
was  committed  the  superintendence  of  the  equipment 
of  the  fleet.  A single  trireme  was  commanded  by  a 
Trierarch,  who  in  ancient  times  received  from  the 
state  merely  her  hull,  but  at  a later  period  all  her  stores, 
standing  and  running  rigging  (oxevrj  %vhva  xal  xpepaord), 
oars,  rudder,  masts,  sails,  cables,  and  anchors.  307. 
In  the  Attic  harbours  were  several  docks  (rtwQia),  sheds 
(recoaorxot),  and  storehouses  (axsvoQijxai).  The  superin- 
tendence of  the  stores  was  committed  to  E7Ti[xsXr]Tai  rwv 
vsaQtav,  an  office  to  which  one  person  out  of  each 
Phyle  was  annually  elected.  They  kept  an  account 
of  every  thing  belonging  to  the  equipment  and  rigging 
of  the  fleet,  and  had  the  Hegemony  (right  of  presidency) 
in  trials  connected  with  their  department.  The  most 
formidable  weapon  in  naval  engagements  was  the  beak 
(jzfifiolor),  with  which  they  endeavoured  to  sink  (xara- 
dvEiv)  or  disable  the  enemy’s  vessels.  Their  principal 
manoeuvres  were  the  dit'xnlovg,  or  breaking  the  line,  and 
the  mQinXovg,  or  outflanking  the  enemy. 


D . Finance. 

§41.  Expenditure — Cost  of  Public  Worship. 

308.  One  very  considerable  item  of  public  expendi- 
ture was  the  outlay  required  for  the  celebration  of 
public  worship  with  its  sacrifices,  processions  (nofinaC), 
theatrical  exhibitions  and  games  at  the  great  feasts, 
such  as  the  Panathenasa,  Dionysia,  Eleusinia.,  &c.  It 
is  true  that  these  expenses  were  defrayed  in  part  by 
private  contributions  and  liturgies  (322),  but  the  lia- 
bilities incurred  by  the  state  were  still  very  considera- 
ble. Another  great  expense  was  the  sending  of  sacred 
embassies  ({h-aolia)  to  Delos,  Delphi,  and  the  great 
national  games.  For  these  Theorias  two  Triremes 


\26  MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

(the  Delian  and  the  Paralian)  were  constantly  kept  in 
commission,  their  crews  receiving  four  oboli  per  man 
daily.  The  state  did  not  indeed  charge  itself  with 
these  disbursements,  but  still  a sum  was  granted  to  the 
Trierarchs  out  of  the  public  chest  to  meet  their  neces- 
sarily increased  expenditure. 

§42.  War:  the  Standing  Army — the  Navy. 

309.  The  expenses  incurred  by  the  Athenians  in 
their  frequent  wars  were  necessarily  very  considerable, 
especially  after  the  time  of  Pericles,  when  the  troops 
received  pay,  although  the  citizens  provided  tTieir  own 
clothing  and  arms.  One  heavy  item  was  the  mainte- 
nance and  education  of  the  sons  of  those  who  fell  in 
battle,  who  were  also  provided,  as  Ephebi,  with  a navo- 
nlla.  Another  regular  expense  was  the  xaraaraaie  (<%s 
equestre)  and  alzog  ( hordearium ) for  each  man  who 
served  in  the  cavalry.  (Cn  their  number,  see  298.) 
It  was  proposed  by  Themistocles  that  Athens  should 
build  annually  twenty  Triremes  as  men-of-war.  Al- 
though this  number  was  never  exactly  observed,  yet  it 
was  required  that  some  should  be  built  every  year, 
under  the  inspection  of  the  Senate,  to  whom  this  duty 
was  committed. 

§ 43.  Public  Buildings — Police — Public  Rewards. 

310.  Considerable  sums  were  expended  in  the  con- 
struction and  maintenance  of  public  buildings ; such  as 
fortifications,  docks,  arsenals,  walls  (of  the  city  and 
harbours),  water-courses,  streets,  gymnasia,  courts  of 
justice,  theatres,  temples,  Leschce,  all  sorts  of  works  of 
art,  &c.  We  may  also  reckon  as  items  of  expenditure 
the  raising  and  maintaining  the  police  force  {rolorui), 
which  gradually  reached  the  number  of  twelve  hundred 
men,  ail  slaves,  who  received  pay  from  the  state.  To 
this  may  be  added  national  rewards,9  public  entertain- 

9 These  rewards  were  seldom  pecuniary.  They  generally  consisted 
in  maintenance  at  the  public  expense,  Ateleia  (immunity  from  taxation 


ATHENS. 


127 


ment  in  the  Prytaneum,  presents  to  foreign  ambassa- 
dors, &c. 

§ 44.  Payment  for  certain  Public  Duties . 

311.  Many  persons  employed  in  the  service  of  the 
state  received  payment,  especially  after  the  time  of 
Pericles.  Among  these  payments  may  be  reckoned  zb 
ixxXqaiaazixov  or  fua&og  ixy.hjdiuazixog,  wages  for  attend- 
ance in  the  public  Assembly,  at  first  one,  afterwards 
three  oboli ; zo  fiovlevrixov,  the  Senator’s  fee,  one 
drachma  a day  ; zb  dixa<7ztr.6v,  the  judge’s  or  juror’s  fee, 
a triobolus.1  To  prevent  abuses  it  was  provided  by 
the  law  that  no  person  should  receive  payment  for  the 
attendance  at  two  places  in  one  day.  312.  The  magis- 
trates had  no  pay ; but  many  other  public  functionaries 
received  a remuneration  for  their  trouble  ; for  instance, 
the  public  advocates  (avvtiixoi,  avvrjyoQoi),  the  inspectors 
of  gymnasia  {cayoonazai),  the  Nomothetae,  the  state 
physicians,  and  a whole  host  of  secretaries,  heralds,  and 
other  public  officers.  There  were  also,  besides  the 
Prytanes,  many  functionaries  who  were  boarded  in  the 
Prytaneum  (<r iztjctg  iv  novzavdaf,  and  many  were  cakuroi 
(those  to  whom  this  public  maintenance  had  been 
granted  for  life).  Ambassadors  received  an  allowance 
for  travelling  expenses  ( igjodiov , rzootioi). 

§45.  Various  Largesses  (piavoyai,  dtotdoaeig). 

313.  After  the  erection  of  the  great  stone  theat«re, 
the  persons  who  contracted  to  keep  it  in  repair  (dzcc- 
zoavai  or  &£ccz(}onb}Xoi)  were  accustomed  to  demand 


generally,  or  exemption  from  certain  liturgies  and  contributions),  a golden 
chaplet  (for  the  Buleut®,  for  instance,  and  sometimes  for  individual  states- 
men, as  in  the  case  of  Pericles,  who  was  the  first  that  received  this  hon- 
our), statues,  as  those  erected  in  honour  of  Harmodius  and  Aristogiton, 
and  subsequently  of  Conon.  These  statues  were  afterwards  set  up  in 
great  numbers.  Demetrius  Phalereus  had  three  hundred  and  sixty  in  one 
year. 

1 The  payment  of  this  sum  was  perhaps  of  but  short  continuance  ; the 
regular  juror’s  fee,  both  before  and  after  it,  being  two  oboli. 


128 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


payment  for  entrance  from  each  individual ; but  a 
regulation  was  proposed  by  Pericles  that  this  expense 
(to  Oewqixov),  amounting  to  two  oboli  per  head,  should 
be  defrayed  out  of  the  public  exchequer.  This  rule 
was  so  far  extended  in  later  times,  as  to  allow  to  each 
citizen  a payment  of  two  oboli  daily  for  three  successive 
days  at  all  the  great  feasts  (hoo/jrjvuti),  whether  there 
were  any  performance  or  not.  This  distribution,  which 
was  by  no  means  restricted  to  the  poorest  classes,  was 
supported  out  of  the  balance  in  the  public  exchequer, 
which  strictly  speaking  ought  to  have  been  carried  to 
the  account  of  the  war  fund,  and  was  at  last  applied 
by  Demosthenes  to  its  original  use.  314.  The  mana- 
gers of  these  Theorica  seem  latterly  to  have  acquired 
considerable  influence,  through  the  popularity  of  the 
arrangement  (320).  Another  sort  of  largess  was  the 
pension  received  by  poor  invalid  soldiers  (dSi'razoi). 
This  regulation  was  afterwards  extended  to  all  impotent 
persons,  who  received  one  or  two  oboli  daily.  The 
distribution  of  these  pensions  was  intrusted  to  the 
Senate ; and  all  who  applied  for  it  were  subjected  to  a 
strict  examination.  We  have  already  mentioned  that 
the  children  of  those  who  fell  in  battle  were  maintained 
at  the  public  expense.  Lastly,  in  times  of  scarcity, 
corn  was  purchased  by  the  government,  and  given  or 
sold  at  a reduced  price  to  the  people. 

§46.  Revenue  ( tioqoi , nqoaoSoi). 

315.  Until  the  growing  power  of  Athens  gave  her 
a control  over  the  wealth  of  foreign  states,  and  her  in- 
creased public  expenditure  called  for  regular  or  extra- 
ordinary contributions  from  her  more  substantial  citi- 
zens, the  public  reA^enue  was  very  inconsiderable. 
Afterwards  it  gradually  increased,  and  is  reckoned  by 
Aristophanes  (Vesp.  660),  at  two  thousand  talents 
yearly,  a calculation  which  will  not  appear  enormous, 
if  we  remember  that  the  tribute  paid  by  the  allies 
amounted  alone  to  twelve  hundred  talents.  Before 
the  Peloponnesian  war  the  state  had  collected  a con- 


ATHENS. 


129 


siderable  amount  of  treasure,  which  was  all  expended 
in  that  war.  The  public  income  was  either  ordinary 
or  extraordinary,  the  former  derived  from  the  regular 
taxes,  the  latter  from  prize-money  in  time  of  war,  or 
from  the  extraordinary  contributions  (voluntary  or 
compulsory)  of  the  citizens. 

§47.  Ordinary  Revenue  from  the  Landed  Property  of 
the  State,  the  Alien-Tax,  and  Duties. 

316.  To  the  ordinary  receipts  belonged,  (1)  The 
income  from  the  various  landed  property  of  the  state, 
arable  land,  pasture,  forest,  salt-pits,  mines  (yt’raV.a), 
especially  the  silver  mines  of  Laurium.  All  these 
were  public  property,  held  by  the  occupiers  subject  to 
a ground  rent,  in  addition  to  the  price  originally  paid 
for  the  purchase.  We  may  also  place  under  this  head, 
houses,  and  the  Theatre.  The  Temples  also  had  their 
glebes,  the  rent  of  which  was  expended  in  the  service 
of  religion.  (2)  Taxes  or  contributions  from  Metceci 
or  foreigners,  who  exercised  any  profession  or  trade. 
The  Alien-Tax  ( to  yezomov)  was  twelve  drachmae 
yearly  for  a man,  and  six  for  a woman  without  sons. 
Even  the  slaves  seem  to  have  paid  a tax.  (3)  Duties. 
The  duty  on  imports  or  exports  by  sea  was  two  per 
cent  {nsvTtjy.ooxrf) , exclusive  of  a small  payment  for  the 
use  of  the  harbour  and  the  public  warehouses.  The 
amount  of  duty  on  goods  brought  overland  is  not 
known.  317.  The  three  sources  of  revenue  {xtlrf)  just 
enumerated  were  farmed  out ; the  larger  contracts  be- 
ing taken  by  companies  (xelwvai),  over  which  dg^apui 
or  xzloavctQ/ca  presided.  The  management  of  these 
contracts  was  intrusted  to  the  Senate.  The  state  en- 
deavoured to  guard  itself  against  any  loss  from  these 
farmers  of  the  revenue,  by  requiring  security  and 
enacting  stringent  laws.  Defaulters  were  visited,  like 
other  state  debtors,  with  Atimia ; at  the  expiration  of 
the  ninth  Prytany  the  debt  was  doubled,  and  the 
amount  levied  on  their  property  : they  might  be  thrown 
into  prison ; and  the  law  with  regard  to  them  was  so 

6* 


130 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


severe,  that  they  were  excepted,  in  common  with  per- 
sons guilty  of  high  treason,  from  the  benefit  of  the 
enactment  which  provided  that  no  Attic  citizen  should 
be  imprisoned,  if  he  could  find  three  persons  of  the 
same  class  with  himself,  who  were  willing  to  become 
his  sureties. 

§48.  Fines,  Payments  on  Law-suits — Confiscations. 

318.  Under  the  head  of  revenue  derived  from  the 
courts  of  justice,  we  may  especially  reckon  the  nqvxa- 
vhu  and  nuQaaxdrjsig  already  mentioned  in  our  chapter 
on  the  administration  of  the  laws  (270,  271),  fines 
(ri/itjiimu)  such  as  the  thousand  drachmas  exacted  from 
those  who  failed  to  obtain  the  votes  of  a fifth  part  of 
the  judges  (265),  &c. ; and,  lastly,  confiscation.  These 
sources  of  revenue  became  considerable  in  later  times, 
when  all  the  disputes  of  the  allies  were  decided  at 
Athens. 


§ 49.  Tribute-money  of  the  Allies. 

319.  Another  more  recent  source  of  revenue,  but 
the  most  productive  of  all,  was  the  tribute  paid  by  the 
allies  (< fOQot , xt'lq  xmv  nolsxov),  which  the  Athenians, 
especially  after  b.  c.  460,  when  the  common  treasury 
was  transferred  to  Athens,  looked  upon  as  their  own. 
Aristides  fixed  it  at  four  hundred  and  sixty  talents 
yearly ; in  the  time  of  Pericles  it  amounted  to  six  hun- 
dred, and  at  a later  period  under  Alcibiades  to  more 
than  two  thousand.  During  the  Peloponnesian  war 
the  form  was  changed  from  a direct  impost  to  a har- 
bour-duty, which  the  Athenians  collected  in  the  allied 
states,  and  which  amounted  to  five  per  cent,  on  imports 
and  exports.  320.  The  whole  of  this  revenue  was  lost 
towards  the  end  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  but  after- 
wards partially  recovered.  Originally  the  custody  of 
this  treasure  was  intrusted  to  ten  Hellenotamiee,  chosen 
yearly  ; and  it  was  unlawful  to  expend  it,  except  against 
the  barbarians ; but  latterly  Athens  employed  it  as  she 


ATHENS. 


131 


thought  fit.  After  the  Anarchy  (b.  c.  404),  we  find  in 
the  place  of  the  Hellenotamise  the  imfithjTai  rav  &sc oqi- 
xwv  (313),  whose  office  became  so  popular,  that  almost 
the  whole  administration  of  the  finances  was  committed 
to  them, 

§ 50.  Ordinary  Services  o f the  Citizens  {Auiovqylca 
fyv.vy.Xioi). 

321.  The  oppressive  character  of  the  Attic  demo- 
cracy manifested  itself  in  the  number  of  public  bur- 
dens which  it  imposed  on  the  wealthier  members  of  the 
community.  These  services  or  Liturgies,  which  were 
established  for  the  purpose  of  relieving  the  public  ex- 
chequer at  the  expense  of  individual  citizens,  were 
either  ordinary  annual  payments  (iyy.vy.hoi),  or  extraor- 
dinary contributions  in  time  of  war.  The  ordinary 
liturgies,  all  of  which  had  reference  to  religious  wor- 
ship, were  exacted  according  to  a regular  cycle  from  all 
the  members  of  each  Phyle,  who  possessed  a property 
amounting  to  at  least  three  talents.  322.  They  con- 
sisted of,  (1)  lOQtjyia,  or  the  duty  of  providing  the  cho- 
rus at  theatrical  entertainments  and  festivals,  and  of 
seeing  that  they  were  duly  trained  and  instructed,  as 
well  as  furnished  with  every  thing  necessary  for  their 
performance  (yoQqyeiv  uvSnnai  or  atOQixol g yogois,  avXrjTais, 
TQaymdoi's-'2).  (2)  r vfxvaaiaoyin,  which  seems  to  have 
consisted  in  supplying  all  that  was  requisite  for  the 
celebration  of  certain  festivals  or  sacred  games.  One 
branch  of  this  service  seems  to  have  been  the  Lam- 
padarchy,  or  superintendence  of  the  torch-race  on  par- 
ticular occasions  (290,  1).  The  prizes,  generally  tripods, 
were  laid  up  in  the  Temples  of  the  gods,  where  they 
served  to  confer  honour  on  the  whole  Phyle.  (3)  Aq- 
yiOecoQia,  a duty  performed  by  the  chief  members  of  the 

8 Theatrical  representations  were  given  in  the  city  at  the  civic  Dio- 
nysia  and  the  Lensea  (290,  2),  and  in  the  country  at  the  rural  Dionysia. 
The  poets  applied  to  the  magistrates  for  permission  to  exhibit  their  pieces 
(x°pdv  aireiv),  and  those  to  whom  it  was  granted  were  supplied  with  a 
chorus  by  the  choregi,  among  whom  they  were  appointed  by  lot. 


132 


MANUAL  OP  GRECIAN  ANTIOUITIES, 


sacred  embassies  sent  to  Delos  and  elsewhere  at  the 
celebration  of  the  great  national  games.  A part,  how- 
ever, of  the  expense  of  these  embassies  was  borne  by 
the  state.  (4)  'Eaziaaig,  or  the  entertaining  the  mem- 
bers of  a Phyle  (ipvlsztxu  dunvu). 

§51.  Extraordinary  Sources  of  Revenue. 

323.  Extraordinary  sources  of  revenue  were  the 
sale  of  booty  taken  in  war,  and  the  tribute  imposed  on 
conquered  enemies.  Sometimes,  under  peculiar  cir- 
cumstances, the  public  Assembly  was  called  upon  for 
voluntary  contributions  (smSoasig)  from  citizens  and 
Metceci ; or  a property  tax  (dacpoQai,  tributa)  was  im- 
posed on  all  persons,  except  the  Thetes,  payable  in  dif- 
ferent proportions  according  to  the  amount  of  property. 
In  this  case  it  would  seem  that  only  the  Pentacosio- 
medimni  were  rated  to  the  full  amount,  the  census 
(rtfirjfia)  of  the  other  classes  being  only  an  aliquot  part 
of  their  property  ( ovaia ).  324.  From  n.  c.  378  a new 

plan  was  introduced,  by  which  only  a portion  of  the 
property  was  rendered  taxable.  For  example,  the  one 
hundred  and  twenty  richest  men  in  each  Phyle  were 
divided  into  two  Out  of  each  Symmoria 

were  again  selected  the  fifteen  richest,  who  were 
charged  with  the  extraordinary  taxes,  and  in  case  of 
necessity  with  a forced  loan  to  the  state  (nQotiaqd^Eiv). 
If  any  one  objected  to  his  own  rating,  as  compared 
with  that  of  a neighbour,  he  might  claim  an  actual 
exchange  of  property  ( dvztdoo/g ),  unless  the  other  would 
consent  to  undertake  the  liturgies  in  his  stead.  Shares 
in  the  Cleruchi®  and  mines  were,  however,  not  in- 
cluded in  this  valuation.  In  cases  of  public  embarrass- 
ment we  have  instances  of  the  government  raising 
loans  from  the  sacred  treasuries,  or  from  citizens,  Me- 
toeci,  or  even  the  citizens  of  other  states. 

§52.  Extraordinary  Liturgies — The  Trierarchy. 

325.  The  most  important  extraordinary  liturgy  was 
the  Trierarchy,  or  charge  of  equipping  triremes  for 


ATHENS. 


133 


War.  In  ancient  times  there  were  forty-eight,  and 
after  the  time  of  Clisthenes  fifty  Naucrariee,  each  of 
which  furnished  a ship  and  two  cavalry  soldiers.  At 
a later  period  the  Strategi  chose  the  requisite  number 
of  Trierarchs  from  the  wealthier  citizens.  These 
officers  either  themselves  took  the  command  of  their 
ships,  or  provided  substitutes.  Until  towards  the  end 
of  the  Peloponnesian  war  the  hull  and  mast,  with  the 
pay  and  provisions  of  the  crew,  were  furnished  by  the 
state  : the  stores,  tackle,  &c.,  being  provided  by  the 
Trierarch,  who  was  required  to  keep  his  vessel  in  sea- 
worthy condition.  Subsequently  we  find  the  stores 
also  provided  by  the  state.  326.  If  a Trierarch  com- 
plained that  his  ship  had  sustained  damage  in  a storm 
without  any  fault  on  his  part,  a Diadicasia  was  insti- 
tuted, to  determine  whether  the  loss  should  fall  on  him 
or  on  the  state.  Instead  of  one  Trierarch  being  charged 
with  the  equipment  of  a ship,  the  expense  in  later  times 
was  often  divided  between  two,  and  not  unfrequently 
persons  compounded  for  their  Trierarchies.  After- 
wards (from  b.  c.  357)  the  plan  of  Symmorice  (324) 
was  extended  to  the  Trierarchy,  the  ships  being  divided 
among  them,  so  that  a number  of  persons,  greater  oi 
less  according  to  circumstances,  were  united  for  the 
equipment  of  a vessel  (awiEXtii;) . 327.  This  arrange- 

ment, however,  being  sometimes  unfair  as  regarded  the 
three  hundred  richest  citizens,  a law  was  afterwards 
passed  in  the  time  of  Demosthenes,  by  which  the  pos- 
sessor of  ten  talents  was  required  to  equip  one  trireme, 
and  men  of  larger  fortune  a number  (not  exceeding 
three)  in  proportion  to  their  means,  the  less  wealthy 
citizens  being  still  allowed  to  club  together.  The 
Trierarchy  continued  a year,  at  the  expiration  ol 
which  an  account  was  rendered  to  the  Logistse.  Tri- 
erarchies were  sometimes  undertaken  voluntarily",  o] 
particular  stores  furnished,  or  triremes  presented  to  th* 
state  by  individuals. 


134 


MANUAL  OP  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


§ 53.  General  arrangements  respecting  ordinary  and 
extraordinary  Liturgies. 

328.  Exemption  from  Liturgies  was  rare,  except  in 
the  cases  of  Archons,  orphans  in  a state  of  pupillage, 
and  unmarried  EpiclSri  (245).  No  citizen  was  required 
to  undertake  two  Liturgies  in  one  year,  or  the  same 
Liturgy  two  years  in  succession.  Even  the  Metoeci 
were  liable  to  this  burden,  which,  although  it  now  and 
then  presented  a favourable  opportunity  for  display  to 
the  vain  and  ambitious,  was  in  most  cases  an  intolera- 
ble annoyance. 

§ 54.  Management  of  the  Finances.  Different  officers 
for  the  collection , custody , and  disbursement  of  the 
public  funds. 

329.  The  chief  control  over  the  finances  was  exer- 
cised, as  we  have  already  mentioned,  by  the  Senate ; 
but  the  details  of  management  were  committed  to  cer- 
tain officers.  Those  charged  with  the  receipt  of  the 
public  revenue  were  n quxzoqes  (number  unknown),  who 
collected  fines ; the  ten  nahjmi  charged  with  the  sale 
of  confiscated  property,  and  the  farming  out  of  the 
revenue,  ten  dnobeyzal  (introduced  by  Clisthenes  in  the 
place  of  the  old  y.colay.Qszai3)  who  received  the  public 
income,  kept  memoranda  and  accounts,  and  decided 
disputes  in  matters  connected  with  their  office.  330. 
The  moneys  received  were  paid  into  the  public  Trea- 
sury in  the  Parthenon,  where  they  were  committed  to 
the  care  of  the  ten  zuylcn  zijg  {teov,  who  had  also  charge 
of  the  treasures  belonging  to  the  Temple.  Latterly 
disbursements  were  made  by  a zaylag  zrjg  dioiy-ijasag,  or 
zwv  xoirar  ngnaodwr,  chosen  by  vote  every  four  years. 
This  officer  had  charge  of  the  funds  required  for  the 
current  expenditure  of  the  state,  and  paid  such  sums  as 
were  ordered  to  the  magistrates  and  other  functionaries, 

3 In  later  times  the  office  of  the  rroiXarptrac  appears  to  have  been  con- 
fined to  the  payment  of  the  jurors’  fees  and  the  providing  the  public  meals 
in  the  Prytaneum. 


ATHENS 


135 


as  well  as  all  other  extraordinary  items  disbursed  by 
command  of  the  people.  He  kept  an  account  of  re- 
ceipts and  disbursements,  which  was  checked  by  a 
comptroller  (dvziygaqtevg  zijg  dtoixi'jnecog),  appointed  for 
that  purpose.  331.  The  rafuug  acted  as  overseer  of  all 
collectors,  and  of  the  public  mines,  to  which  duties 
special  officers  were  also  appointed,  such  as  odonoioi', 
re rfonoioi,  zqi^qojzoioi',  enifzebjrcu  z av  vewgimv,  &c.  Be- 
sides the  public  treasure  there  were  several  separate 
funds  set  apart  for  the  purpose  of  religious  worship ; 
and  various  Temple-revenues  arising  both  from  the 
consecrated  land  (or  glebe)  and  various  augmentations 
from  a per-centage  on  confiscations  and  fines.  From 
b.  c.  420  all  these  funds  were  kept  together  in  the 
Acropolis  under  the  care  of  ten  racial  zdv  tie cov,  who 
were  chosen  by  lot  from  the  Pentacosiomedimni. 


§ 55.  Money  (vo^taya). 

332.  The  supply  of  the  nobler  metals,  which  was 
small  at  first,  increased  by  degrees,  the  prices  of  all 
commodities  rising  in  proportion.  The  Attic  silver 
coinage,  although  gradually  debased,  was  still  purer 
than  that  of  most  other  states,  and  in  consequence  was 
always  highly  valued  in  all  commercial  transactions. 
The  most  common  silver  coins  were  the  Drachma  (8ga- 
%pu'l),  which  was  the  hundredth  part  of  a Mina  (, uru)  or 
Attic  pound,  and  the  Tetradrachmon  (rezgadgay^ov) 
called  also  a ozazrjg.  The  Didrachmon  (didgnyyov)  was 
more  rare.  Sixty  Minas  made  a Talent.  It  must  be 
observed  however  that  the  Talent  and  Mina  were  im- 
aginary coins.  333.  A Drachma  contained  six  Oboli 
(o§oh)i)  or  two  Triobola  (zgimfiohx) ; an  Obol  two  He- 
miobolia  (Ijfttopoha).  The  copper  coins  were  yah/.oi, 
of  which  eight  made  an  Obol  ; Xenrd,  each  of  which 
was  the  seventh  part  of  a Chalcus,  and  Dichalcon 
(StyaXy.or),  or  the  fourth  part  of  an  Obol.4  Their  gold 
coins  were  Staters  {azazXjgeg  zgvaot)  equal  in  weight  tc 


4 There  were  also  silver  coins  of  the  same  value. 


136 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


two  Drachmae,  but  in  value  to  twenty.5  The  Dario 
(daQHxog)  which  was  frequently  employed  in  Grecian 
trade,  had  the  same  weight  and  value  as  the  Stater. 
There  were  also  r^r/Qvaot,  worth  ten  Drachmae.  Not 
only  the  state,  but  individual  Demi,  had  the  right  of 
coining  money.6 


PRIVATE  LIFE. 

§ 1.  General  remarks. 

334.  In  all  the  relations  of  private  life  we  find  a 
marked  difference  between  the  Spartans  and  the  Athe- 
nians. In  the  former  state,  domestic  life  was  little 
more  than  a name,  the  conduct  of  every  citizen  being 
regulated  by  ancient  unchangeable  customs  sanctioned 
by  the  state.  Athens,  on  the'  contrary,  was  the  home 
of  liberty ; and  with  the  exception  of  the  liabilities 
necessary  to  the  existence  of  the  state,  which  were  not 
unalterable,  but  capable  of  modification,  each  citizen 
was  free  to  live  as  he  pleased. 

§ 2.  Trades. 

335.  The  most  important  sources  of  profit  were 
agriculture,  rearing  of  cattle,  and  commerce.  The 
soil  of  Attica,  although  by  no  means  remarkable  for  its 
fertility,  was  diligently  cultivated.  Its  chief  products 
were  olives,  figs,  wine  of  indifferent  quality  ; with  mar- 
ble, silver,  and  lead  from  the  mineral  kingdom.  The 
mountain  districts  were  favourable  to  the  breeding  of 
cattle,  the  coasts  to  fishing.  The  land  did  not  produce 

s The  proportion  of  gold  to  silver  was,  therefore,  as  1 : 10.  It  after- 
wards rose  gradually  to  1 : 15. 

5 We  often  read  of  the  iEginetan  standard  of  weights  and  coinage, 
which  bore  a proportion  of  5 : 3 to  the  Attic  standard  of  Solon.  One 
iEginetan  talent  = 10,000  Att.  drachmae.  The  Eubo'tc  talent,  which 
seems  to  have  been  originally  equivalent  to  the  old  or  ante-Solonic  Attic, 
was  latterly  used  only  as  a weight,  and  bore  a proportion  to  that  of  Solon 
of  25:  18. 


ATHENS. 


i31 


sufficient  corn  for  the  consumption  of  the  inhabitants , 
a considerable  quantity  was  therefore  imported  evei'y 
year  from  Pontus,  Egypt,  Syria,  Sicily,  and  Libya. 
Many  laws  were  enacted  with  the  view  of  insuring  a 
sufficient  supply.  Their  other  imports  were  wood, 
various  materials  for  ship-building,  iron  and  coppei 
from  Pontus,  Macedonia,  Thrace,  and  several  of  the 
islands,  the  more  generous  wines  from  the  islands,  &c. 
The  exports  consisted  of  manufactured  goods,  such  as 
arms  and  other  hardware,  all  sorts  of  fine  lamps,  furni- 
ture, and  vases,  clothes  and  woven  articles.  Oil  also 
was  exported. 

§ 3.  Same  subject  continued. 

336.  The  trade  of  Attica  was  greatly  promoted  by 
the  number  of  excellent  harbours,  the  superiority  of 
her  coinage,  and  the  wisdom  of  her  commercial  laws 
and  commercial  police.  Exportation  was  not  permit- 
ted unconditionally.  Grain  and  several  other  ai’ticles 
could  not  be  sent  out  of  Attica  at  all,  nor  could  wea- 
pons be  exported  to  an  enemy’s  country.  Wars  were 
often  occasioned  by  commercial  restrictions  or  prohi- 
bitions ; and  sometimes  it  was  found  necessary  to  ob- 
tain a supply  of  indispensable  articles,  especially  corn, 
by  compulsory  means.  For  instance,  the  buying  up  of 
corn  was  restricted,  and  the  dealers  placed  under  rigid 
surveillance.  337.  Handicraftsmen,  and  small  trades- 
men (y.dni]loi),  in  ancient  times  were  not  very  highly 
esteemed,  nor  were  those  trades  ever  exercised  by 
members  of  the  more  distinguished  families ; yet  we 
find  artizans  like  Cleon  and  Hyperbolus  raising  them 
selves  to  power  through  the  democratic  constitution 
of  the  government.  Solon  and  afterwards  Themis- 
tocles  and  Pericles,  especially  favored  manufacturing 
industry.  All  trades  were  open  both  to  citizens  and 
Metceci. 

§ 4.  Weights  and  Measures. 

338.  The  Hellenes  seem  originally  to  have  derived 
their  scale  of  weights  and  measures  from  the  JBabylo- 


138 


MANUAL  OP  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


nians  and  Egyptians  through  the  Phoenicians  Of 
those  in  use  among  the  Athenians,  the  most  important 
were  the  Olympic  foot  (novg),  which  was  divided  into 
four  nalaiozai  or  spans,  or  sixteen  daxzvlot,  twelve 
Dactyli  made  a cm&uiirj.  The  niy/vg,  Cubit  or  Ell,  was 
equal  to  lj  feet,  six  Palaestae,  or  twenty-four  Dactyli; 
the  nvywv  to  five  Palaestae,  or  twenty  Dactyli.  The 
oQyvux.  or  Fathom  was  six  feet ; the  nltQqov,  one  hun- 
dred feet.  (It  was  also  a superficial  measure  of  ten 
thousand  square  feet.)  The  ozdSiov  contained  six  hun- 
dred Greek,  or  six  hundred  and  twenty-five  Roman 
feet.  After  the  Olympic  games  had  become  a general 
Grecian  festival,  the  stadion  was  generally  used  as  a 
nwasure  of  length  for  the  greater  distances. 


§ 5.  Same  subject  continued. 


339. 


340. 


The  measures  for  liquids  were 

yiEZQTjzrjg  — [n'dtftvog 

yovg  ( congius ) = 

^tozrjg  ( sextarius ) = 

xozvi-rj  ( hemlna ) = 

zizctQzov  - 

o^vjacfoi  = 

xva&og  = 


A Metretes 
i Chus. 
i Xestes. 
i Cotyle. 
i Te  tar  ton. 

§ Oxybaphon. 

The  measures  for  dry  goods  were 


jt itdtfivog . 

sxzEvg  = f Medimnus. 
•ijliitxzov  — ^ Hekteus. 
j(om£  — J Hemiekton 
t tazrjg  — Choenix. 
y.ozvb]  = ^ Xestes. 
xvuQog  = £ Cotyle. 


§ 6.  Division  of  Time. 

341.  The  Attic  year  was  lunar,  like  that  of  all  the 
Hellenic  states.  The  number  of  days  in  each  month 
was  alternately  twenty-nine  and  thirty  (fiijvsg  xotP.ot  xai 


ATHENS. 


139 


nlrjosts).  But  as  the  lunar  year,  which  contained  three 
hundred  and  fifty-four  days,  did  not  correspond  with 
the  solar  year,  an  intercalary  month  (fiijv  tyfiohyog  or 
tfifiohfjicuog)  was  added  from  time  to  time.  Afterwards 
fixed  rules  were  established  for  the  intercalation,  when 
the  months  began  to  be  arranged  according  to  cycles. 
At  first  there  was  a cycle  of  two  years  (rQisrtjQi'g),  after- 
wards of  eight  (6y.Toszi]Qig),  and  lastly  of  sixteen  ( ixy.ca - 
dsxaeTijoig) . 342.  The  first  calendar  was  published  by 

Meton  (b.  c.  432),  who  invented  a period  of  nineteen 
years  or  six  thousand  nine  hundred  and  forty  days 
(iwEay.cudexuEztjQig,  Mharog  inavtog),  which  continued 
for  a long  time  to  be  the  general  mode  of  computing 
time.  By  this  method  seven  months  were  intercalated 
in  nineteen  years ; namely,  in  the  third,  fifth,  eighth, 
eleventh,  thirteenth,  sixteenth,  and  nineteenth  year. 
With  regard  to  the  number  of  days  in  each  month  he 
made  the  following  arrangement.  As  his  cycle  of 
nineteen  years  would  give  in  two  hundred  and  thirty- 
five  months  of  thirty  days,  seven  thousand  and  fifty 
days,  that  is,  one  hundred  and  ten  too  many,  he  left  out 
every  sixty-third  day  (ryxeQu  igatQsaifxog),  the  effect  of 
which  was  that  the  Attic  months,  which  had  previously 
been  fixed  (xoiloi  or  nh'iQsig),  were  now  changeable. 
Many  changes,  however,  were  afterwards  introduced, 
especially  by  Callippus. 


§ 7.  Same  subject  continued. 

343.  The  names  of  the  Attic  months  were 

Summer  months. 
bceon,  nearly  =c 

IJvavExpidv  ) 

Maifiay.Trjouav  \ Autumn  months. 
IJoaeiStcov  ) 
rafxrjhcov  ) 

’Av&EarrjQidv  > Winter  months. 
'Elacprj^ohdv  ) 

Movvvyjxav  ) 

OctQyrjhcov  > Spring  months. 

2 MQOCpOQUOV  ) 


( Hecatom 
ir  July.) 


'Ey.aroyijuidv 

MsTuyeizivmv 

BotjdQO/^uoiy 


140 


MANUaL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES, 


344.  In  the  intercalary  year,  after  the  month  Posei- 
deon  a second  Poseideon  of  twenty-nine  or  thirty  days 
was  introduced.  Each  Attic  month  was  divided  into 
three  decades.  The  first  day  of  the  month  was  called 
i’so/jt]r(n.  The  following  days  of  the  first  decade  were 
reckoned  in  their  order  with  the  addition  of  the  word 
laiafitiov  or  aQ/ofisvov  (fiqvog).  In  the  same  way  the 
days  of  the  second  decade  had  the  addition  of  im  dixa 
or  fitaovvtog,  and  those  of  the  third,  im  sixdSi.  It  was 
however  more  usual  to  reckon  the  days  of  the  last 
decade  backwards,  with  the  addition  qt&lvovrog  or  navo- 
(jitvov,  e.  g.  SevztQK  <j> {h'rovTog,  the  last  day  but  one  of  the 
month  ( pridie  calendas),  or  the  twenty-ninth  of  a firtv 
xoihog,  or  twenty-eighth  of  a fit] v nlrjQtjg.  The  thirtieth 
or  last  day  of  the  month  was  styled  ’ivrj  xai  via  (“  old 
and  new”).  The  Attic  civil  year  began  in  the  month 
Hecatombceon,  which  corresponded  nearly  to  our  July. 

§ 8.  Physical  and  moral  Training  of  Boys  (vQocptj  xai 
naidtld). 

345.  Education  was  for  the  most  part  left  to  the 
discretion  of  individuals,  the  state  interfering  very  little 
with  the  discipline  of  youth.  It  depended  in  fact  on 
the  caprice  of  their  parents  whether  they  should  be 
brought  up  or  exposed.  The  father  gave  his  sons  in 
general  a name,  which  in  most  instances,  especially  in 
the  case  of  the  firstborn,  was  that  of  the  grandfather.7 
The  education  of  the  children  in  the  poorer  class  con- 
sisted merely  in  learning  the  first  elements,  with  some 
art  or  handicraft,  which  their  parents  were  bound  to 
teach  them.  A liberal  education  comprehended  music 
(in  the  wider  acceptation  of  the  term),  and  gymnastics, 
the  former  for  the  cultivation  of  the  mind,  the  latter  for 
giving  health,  strength  and  comeliness  (tith'd)  to  the 
body.  34G.  The  special  superintendence  of  the  chil- 

7 As  the  Greeks  bore  only  one  name,  it  was  usual  to  distinguish  them 
by  adding  that  of  the  father  (n-arpddei'  ovofia^eiv).  The  official  designation 
was  derived  from  the  demos,  e.  g.  'AnTitfioiv  i Kfj^urcG,  Nucdorfjaroj  2 

OEOcSoridoVt  AripoaQii/ris  AripoaBivov^  Tlautvicvs. 


ATHENS. 


141 


dren  was  committed  to  a slave  (aaiduycoyoz),  by  whom 
they  were  always  accompanied  until  they  were  admit- 
ted among  the  EpheJfi.  Instruction  in  grammar  began 
at  seven  years  old,  and  was  given  by  a grammarian, 
who  taught  the  children  (yqififiara  diSdoxetv)  the  first 
elements  (reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic),  together 
with  recitation,  learning  by  heart,  and  writing  from 
dictation.  For  these  exercises  they  generally  used  the 
writings  of  poets,  such  as  Homer,  Hesiod,  Theognis, 
&c. 


§ 9.  Same  subject  continued. 

347.  About  their  thirteenth  year,  the  boys  were 
sent  to  a Citharistes,  who  taught  them  as  much  music 
and  singing  as  was  thought  necessary  for  a gentleman. 
In  gymnastics  they  received  the  instruction  of  the 
natSoT^ijca  in  the  Gymnasia,  wThither  they  were  sent, 
not  so  much  for  the  purpose  of  qualifying  them  to  be- 
come Athletes,  as  of  giving  them  strength,  pliability, 
and  gracefulness.  Education  was  superintended  by 
the  Areopagus.  For  this  purpose,  at  least  in  later 
times,  three  GmcpQoviarai,  paid  by  the  state,  were  sta- 
tioned in  the  Gymnasia.  Slaves  were  not  allowed  to 
take  part  in  the  exercises.  There  were  several  regula- 
tions for  the  maintenance  of  discipline  and  morality, 
which,  however,  were  gradually  relaxed,  as  the  char- 
acter of  the  people  degenerated. 

§ 10.  Same  subject  continued. 

348.  Their  instruction  in  music  and  grammar  con- 
tinued until  their  eighteenth  year,  the  two  last  years 
being  chiefly  spent  in  the  Gymnasia,  after  which  the 
youths  were  sent  out  to  their  two  years’  service  as 
peripoli  (296).  As  civilization  increased,  the  circle  of 
education  in  both  branches  became  wider.  In  the 
gymnastic  school  many  began  to  learn  Hoplomachy, 
dancing,  and  riding ; whilst  music  was  followed  by 
geometry,  drawing,  and  at  a later  period  by  rhetoric, 
sophistry,  and  philosophy,  which  were  often  taught  by 


142 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIGtUITIES. 


celebrated  professors  on  extravagant  terms.  349.  The 
advance  of  education  was  aided  especially  by  that  taste 
for  the  fine  arts  which  had  been  awakened  even  in  the 
days  of  the  Pisistratidae,  and  had  been  more  widely 
developing  itself  since  the  time  of  Pericles,  by  the 
constant  sight  of  the  many  plastic  or  dramatic  works 
of  art  connected  principally  with  public  worship,  and 
by  the  varied  influence  of  their  restless  political  life. 
Hence  the  Athenians  were  distinguished  for  politeness 
and  a taste  for  the  beautiful,  as  well  as  for  an  anxious 
yearning  after  knowledge,  which  they  sought  to  gratify 
by  lively  discussion  and  instructive  conversation. 
Sometimes,  however,  this  propensity  degenerated  into 
a love  of  trifling  gossip  (udolsaxlu). 

§11.  Female  Education. 

350.  The  education  of  girls  was  conducted  at  home 
under  the  eye  of  their  mother,  and  aimed  rather  at 
making  them  good  housewives  than  accomplished  wo- 
men. They  generally  led  a very  retired  life,  seldom 
appearing  in  public,  except  at  religious  festivals.  It 
has  been  a subject  of  dispute,  whether  they  visited  the 
theatres  or  not,  but  at  all  events  in  the  olden  time  they 
were  only  permitted  to  be  present  at  tragedies.8  They 
generally  married  very  early ; and  it  was  considered 
unbecoming  for  them  to  trouble  themselves  about  state 
affairs,  and  matters  which  more  properly  belonged  to 
men.  They  were  subject  to  the  inspection  of  the 
ywaixovofioi,  an  office  undoubtedly  of  modern  creation. 
The  free  intercourse  between  the  sexes  enjoyed  in  our 
days,  and  the  influence  which  it  exercises  over  the 
whole  life  and  character,  both  of  males  and  females, 
were  in  great  measure  unknown  to  the  Athenians. 

§ 12.  Meals. 

351.  Among  entertainments  of  a public  character 
we  have  already  mentioned  the  alrrjaig  iv  aovtavtlm  and 

* See  Smith’s  Dict'y  of  Antiquities,  article  Theatrum,  where  the 
same  view  is  advocated 


ATHENS. 


143 


the  eGTictGig,  or  feasting  of  the  Phyle  (cpvlszrxu  delnvu). 
Their  social  meals  were  the  egavoi,  or  pic-nics,  to 
which  each  contributed  his  proportion  either  in  money 
or  provisions  (<? vfi(iolui).  The  usual  daily  meals  were 
uxQuzioim,  breakfast,  uotazov,  dinner  (or  luncheon,  at 
noon),  and  Sunvov,  supper  (or  rather  dinner,  as  being 
the  principal  meal  of  the  day).  For  many  ages  the 
entertainments  of  the  Athenians  were  exceedingly 
simple  ; but  the  luxury  which  began  to  reign  in  the 
time  of  Pericles  (b.  c.  440),  extended  itself  to  their 
tables,  which  were  furnished  with  the  most  exquisite 
delicacies  of  the  continent  and  islands.  352.  Many 
ineffectual  attempts  were  made  to  restrain  this  tide  of 
extravagance  by  legislative  enactments  ; such  as  pro- 
hibiting the  use  of  unmixed  wine  or  the  invitation  of 
more  than  thirty  guests  to  a banquet,  and  making 
drunkenness  in  an  Archon  a capital  offence.  The 
entertainment,  at  which  the  guests  reclined  on  couches 
{y.lhat)  with  cushions  {azQ^fiuza)  consisted  of  several 
courses  (dslnvov  nQoolfuov,  xscpuXi]  c \unvov,  imSoQmofm. 
or  /xsTudoQma,  Sevzsqcu  zgans^ai,  zQuyrjtiarct  sweetmeats 
and  fruit).  Symposia  or  wine-parties  usually  followed 
the  Sunvov,  but  were  considered  distinct  parties.  353. 
The  best  wine  was  brought  from  the  islands  of  Chios 
and  Lesbos,  and  was  generally  drunk  mixed  with  water, 
warm  or  cold  (xQurr^).  The  entertainer,  or  whoever  did 
the  honours  at  table  and  presided  over  the  drinking,  was 
termed  avfinoot'uQxog.  The  guests  were  anointed  and 
wore  garlands  at  the  Symposia.  Besides  conversation, 
they  were  amused  with  jokes  of  Parasites  (ys/.oozonotol), 
music,  songs  (oxoha),  and  dancing.  After  supper  they 
had  draughts  (nszzela)  and  dice  (v.vfitia),  but  the  favour- 
ite game  of  all  was  the  xorzafiog.9  The  women  of  the 
family  took  no  part  in  these  entertainments. 


9 The  Cottabus  was  a social  game  introduced  from  Sicily  into  Greece. 
The  simplest  way  of  playing  it  was  this : one  of  the  company  threw  out 
of  a goblet  a certain  quantity  of  pure  wine,  at  a certain  distance,  into  a 
metal  basin,  endeavouring  to  perform  this  exploit  in  such  a manner  as 
not  to  spill  any  of  the  wine.  While  he  was  doing  this  he  either  thought 
of  or  pronounced  the  name  of  his  mistress,  and  from  the  more  or  less  full 


144 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


§ 13.  Dress. 

354.  In  their  dress  as  well  as  their  diet  great  changes 
were  gradually  introduced.  The  old  Ionic  costume 
with  its  long  flowing  Chiton,  generally  of  linen  (jtzmvsg 
hvot),  and  the  carefully  frizzled  hair  with  its  golden 
cicadae  (/ qvool  rszztyeg),  were  displaced  by  the  shorter 
Doric  Chiton  of  wool,  and  a more  simple  head-dress. 
A chiton  with  an  opening  in  the  sleeve  for  the  left  arm, 
worn  principally  by  slaves  and  the  labouring  class,  was 
called  ilEayu'g.  The  surtout  (ifidziov)  consisted  of  one 
large  square  piece  ; a coarser  winter  cloak  was  called 
■/I cava,  a thinner,  yXavig.  355.  The  Ephebi  had  a 
particular  sort  of  surtout  (j/Xafivg ).  Generally  speaking 
the  men  wore  nothing  on  their  heads,  except  on  a 
journey  (xvvrj,  mXog,  ntzuaog,  the  last  for  Ephebi).  On 
their  feet  they  wore  either  soles  or  sandals,  generally 
of  leather  (im odtjfiazu),  or  shoes  which  covered  the 
whole  foot,  with  several  intermediate  varieties  ( auvdd - 
Xta,  y.orjrttg,  tufidg,  fiXavzat,  crdnouiSsg) . The  women’s 
garments  (of  linen,  wool,  and  fivaaog,  afterwards  of  silk, 
were  long  and  flowing,  confined  by  a girdle 
round  the  waist,  and  in  this  respect  distinguished  from 
the  more  free  and  light  Doric  costume.  In  later  times 
luxury  prevailed  to  a great  extent  in  both  sexes. 

§ 14.  Houses. 

356.  The  Athenian  men  generally  lived  in  public. 
Most  of  their  time  was  passed  in  the  Agora  ( rzlrj&ovaa 
dyoQu  the  forenoon),  or  in  visiting  the  Gymnasia  and 
public  shops  or  booths  of  the  hairdressers,  dealers  in 
perfumes,  &c.,  which  were  all  places  of  general  resort. 
A consequence  of  this  sort  of  life  was,  that  little  atten- 
tion was  bestowed  on  domestic  architecture ; after- 
wards, however,  as  the  interest  in  public  life  declined, 


and  pure  sound  with  which  the  wine  struck  against  the  metal  basin,  the 
lover  drew  his  conclusions  respecting  the  attachment  of  the  object  of  his 
love.  For  the  other  and  more  complicated  forms  of  the  game,  see  Dir.t’y 
of  Antiquities,  article  Cottabus. 


ATHENS. 


145 


men  began  to  build  more  roomy  and  handsome  private 
houses,  which  they  filled  with  expensive  furniture 
(imnla,  axevij).  Of  the  character  and  arrangement  of 
their  houses,  we  know  very  little.1  Most  of  those 
occupied  by  single  families  ( oiy.ua ) had  no  second  story 
(v/zegcgot).  The  court  in  front  of  the  house  was  called 
tiqoOuqov  : in  the  interior  was  an  open  space  ( neglatvlov ) 
surrounded  by  pillars.  357.  The  apartments  of  the 
men  (uvSquivihs)  and  women  (yvvamcavltig)  were  sepa- 
rated by  a door  (/ n'aavlog ),  the  former  being  probably 
in  the  front  of  the  house,  the  latter  at  the  back,  or  in 
the  vnegcgov,  where  there  was  one.2  The  company  or 
eating-room  was  called  avdgmv,  the  bed-chambers 
■dalauoi.  In  the  superior  houses  there  were  chambers 
set  apart  for  guests  ( Serme s) . Those  who  wished  to 
enter  from  the  street  were  obliged  to  knock  for  admis- 
sion (xqovsiv,  xomEtv — the  rapping  at  the  door  by  those 
who  went  out  was  called  xporpnv).3  Athens  was  by  no 
means  handsomely  built.  The  streets  were  narrow, 
and  the  houses  insignificant.  Their  number  (including 
the  Pirseeus  and  Munychia)  amounted  to  about  ten 
thousand.  They  were  either  olxiat  for  a single  family, 
or  ffvpoixicu,  lodging-houses,  in  which  several  families 
lived  together. 


§ 15.  Funerals. 

358.  The  interment  of  the  dead  and  conservation 
of  their  graves  was  a sacred  duty  inculcated  by  the 
law,  especially  on  the  sons  of  the  deceased.  The  burial 
of  a corpse  in  a proper  manner  was  called  tu  dlxaiu,  to. 
vofAtpiu.  Those  who  found  dead  bodies  were  required 
at  least  to  cover  them  with  earth.  From  the  time  of 
Clisthenes  the  duty  of  burying  them  was  imposed  on 

1 For  an  interesting  and  full  account  of  Grecian  houses,  see  Dicfy  of 
Antiquities,  article  House. 

2 A double  house,  in  the  Greek  sense,  was  one  which  had  an  upper 
story  that  exactly  corresponded,  in  the  arrangement  of  its  rooms,  &. c., 
with  the  lower  story.  Cf.  Lys.  in  Sim. 

* The  object  of  this  was  to  give  notice  to  the  passers  by,  for  the  doors 
^pened  outwards. 


7 


146 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


the  Demarchs.  The  funeral  duties  were  strictly  de- 
fined. The  corpse  was  washed,  anointed,  clothed, 
crowned  with  a chaplet,  and  then  laid  out  in  the  vesti- 
bule on  a xh'vrj  ( nQoridsaOai ).  A vessel  of  water  («p- 
danov ) was  placed  in  front  of  the  house.  Over  the  bier 
they  uttered  loud  lamentations,  the  violent  outbreak  of 
which  was  restricted,  it  is  said,  by  Solon.  The  pro- 
cession was  headed  by  a band  of  musicians  (&Qi]vcpdof), 
who  were  followed  by  a train  of  men  and  women  in 
mourning,  the  neai'est  relations  with  their  hair  shaven. 
359.  Both  burning  {/.aim)  and  interment  (y.azoQvzzsiv) 
were  usual  (Odm  mv  is  the  general  term  for  burying). 
When  the  corpse  was  burnt,  the  ashes  were  collected 
into  an  urn.  The  funeral  was  succeeded  by  a solemn 
meal  (nsgidunvov),  and  afterwards  by  sacrifices  for  the 
dead.  The  funeral  rites  of  those  who  fell  in  defence 
of  their  country  were  celebrated  with  especial  magnifi- 
cence. There  were  several  burial-grounds  near  the 
city;  such  as  the  outer  Ceramicus.  The  stone  monu- 
ments (yvtjimra,  orjyazu)  were  often  very  expensive.  A 
general  festival  in  honour  of  the  dead  was  celebrated 
by  the  state  in  the  month  Anthesterion.  (cf.  343.) 


POINTS  OF  UNION  FOR  THE  WHOLE  OF  GREECE. 

A.  Festivals  and  Games. 

§ 1.  Local  Festivals.  The  great  National  Festivals. 

360.  The  lively  and  sociable  character  of  the 
Greeks  occasioned  many  social  meetings,  which  ac- 
quired importance  from  their  close  connexion  with 
religious  festivals,  and  with  the  public  gymnastic  exer- 
cises, which  played  an  important  part  in  Grecian  edu- 
cation, as  promoting  the  development  of  strength  and 
adroitness,  and  laying  the  foundation  of  military  brave- 
ry, besides  exhibiting  models  of  manly  beauty.4  In 

4 We  have  a proof  of  the  interest  taken  by  the  Hellenes  in  these  ex- 
ercises in  the  number  of  Tra\aiarpait  yvpvacua , oraota,  np6/tuif  iTrird^pofioi,  &C 


POINTS  OF  UNION  FOR  ALL  GREECE. 


147 


many  parts  of  Greece  we  find  periodical  festivals  of 
this  description,5 6  to  which  the  rest  of  the  Greeks  were 
admitted.  Four  of  these  gradually  raised  themselves 
from  the  rank  of  local  to  that  of  national  solemnities, 
viz.,  the  games  at  Olympia  in  Elis,  at  Delphi  in  Phocis, 
at  Nemea  in  Argolis,  and  on  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth. 
361.  These  festivals,  at  which  all  persons  not  Greeks,8 
and  all  slaves  were  excluded  from  contending,  would 
naturally  arouse  and  sustain  the  feeling  of  national 
unity  and  mutual  dependence,  which  was  also  pro- 
moted by  the  great  fairs  which  accompanied  the  i ravy- 
yvQEtg.  A later  festival,  that  bore  a national  character, 
was  the  Eleutherian  feast  at  Plataea,  established  at  the 
suggestion  of  Aristides  to  commemorate  the  victory  of 
the  Greeks  over  the  Persians.  This  solemnity  was 
celebrated  every  five  years,  and  continued  to  be  ob- 
served for  a long  time,  although  not  very  highly 
esteemed. 


§2.  The  Olympic  Games  (dydv  ’Olvyma). 

362.  The  Olympic  games  were  traced  back  by  the 
ancients  to  the  mythic  times,  generally  to  the  days  of 
Hercules.  They  are  not,  however,  mentioned  by  Ho- 
mer, a circumstance  which  would  seem  to  indicate  that 
in  his  time  they  were  at  all  events  not  very  splendid. 
At  a later  period  they  seem  to  have  been  revived  and 
arranged,  three  hundred  years  after  the  fall  of  Troy,  by 
the  Elean  prince  Iphitus,  in  conjunction  with  the  Lace- 
daemonian legislator  Lycurgus.7  A list  was  kept  of 
the  victors  in  an  unbroken  series  from  b.  c.  776. 8 On 
this  was  afterwards  founded  the  reckoning  of  time  by 
Olympiads.  The  games  were  held  in  honour  of  Zeus, 

5 Even  in  Homer's  poetry  we  find  notices  of  gymnastic  contests  and 
liorse  races.  II.  xi.  699  ; xxiii.  257.  Od.  viii.  120.  The  prizes  ( lisdXa , 
Att.  ad\a)  were  goblets,  cauldrons,  tripods,  arms,  talents  of  silver,  iron, 
female  slaves,  horses,  mules,  and  oxen. 

6 We  find,  however,  that  Macedonians  and  Romans,  as  masters  of 
Greece,  were  allowed  to  contend  at  the  Olympic  games. 

7 See  Thirhvall’s  Hist,  of  Greece,  vol.  i.  p.  153. 

* Corcebus  of  Elis,  victor  in  the  nra&iov,  b.  c.  776. 


148  MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  / NTiaUITIES. 

every  five  years  ( nEvza.srriqiy.oi ) during  five  days  in  the 
Attic  month  Hecatombaeon  (343),  in  the  grove  Altis,  in 
Elis  on  the  river  Alpheus.  363.  The  Eleans,  who 
were  managers  of  the  games,  appointed  the  time,  and 
proclaimed  the  truce  (iy.eyeirjia  and  anovSczl)  prescribed 
by  the  law  during  the  continuance  of  the  games  (isqo- 
H'jn'a),  and  the  inviolability  of  those  who  were  present 
at  the  festival  or  on  their  way  to  join  it.  Originally  the 
Eleans  themselves  were  considered  (or  rather  claimed 
to  be  considered)  inviolable  at  all  times.  The  judges 
(sllavoSixui),  whose  number  is  uncertain,  were  ap- 
pointed beforehand  by  the  Elean  voyocpvluaeg.  An 
appeal  lay  from  their  sentence  to  the  Olympic  council. 
These  Hellanodicae9  declared  the  time  within  which 
the  combatants  were  required  to  announce  themselves 
at  Elis,  and  ascertained  whether  they  were  Hellenes 
and  freeborn,  whether  they  had  ever  suffered  Atimia  or 
been  guilty  of  acripeta,  and  whether  their  age  qualified 
them  to  be  entered  as  made g or  as  uvdQeg.  364.  They 
also  administered  an  oath  to  the  combatants,  that  they 
would  act  honourably,  arranged  the  details  of  the  com- 
bats, investigated  any  charge  which  might  be  brought 
against  the  men  by  those  who  came  forward  for  that 
purpose  on  the  public  invitation  of  the  heralds,  paired 
the  combatants  by  lot,  and  took  care  that  the  laws  of 
the  combat  should  be  strictly  observed.  The  func- 
tionaries who  kept  order  during  the  games  were  called 
alvzcu,  and  were  subject  to  an  uXvTiujyqg.  The  Olympic 
games  were  suppressed  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor 
Theodosius  (a.  d.  394.) 

§ 3.  The  Pythian  Games. 

365.  According  to  the  legend,  Apollo  was  the 
founder  of  these  games,  but  it  was  only  after  b.  c.  582 
that  they  became  ay  on  eg  azecpavizai.  Originally  they 
were  celebrated  once  in  nine  years,  but  afterwards, 
when  they  were  placed  under  the  protection  of  tl  e 


9 This  name  was  also  given  to  certain  Spartan  military  judges. 


POINTS  OF  UNION  FOR  ALL  GREECE. 


140 


Amphictyons  (b.  c.  590,  or  according  to  some  authori- 
ties 586)  every  fifth  year  in  the  third  year  of  the  Olym- 
piad. The  place  where  they  were  held  was  the  Cris- 
saean  plain  near  Delphi. 

§4.  The  Nemean  Games.1 

366.  The  institution  of  these  games  is  ascribed  by 
tradition  to  the  seven  chiefs  who  marched  against 
Thebes,  or  to  Hercules.  They  were  celebrated  four 
times  in  two  Olympiads,  in  a valley  near  Nemga,  in 
Argolis,  between  Cleonas  and  Phlius. 

§ 5.  The  Isthmian  Games. 

367.  These  games  were  founded,  according  to  the 
legend,  by  Sisyphus  in  commemoration  of  the  sea-god 
Melicertes,  and  revived  by  Theseus  in  honour  of  Po- 
seidon ; for  which  reason  the  Athenians  always  occu- 
pied the  place  of  honour  (ngotSoiu)  at  these  games. 
They  were  held  every  third  year  on  the  isthmus  of 
Corinth.2 


§ 6.  Character  of  the  Contests. 

368.  The  contests  were  partly  aymveg  yv[m xot  and 
inncAoi — partly  fiovaiy.ot  (fiovoiy.rlg) . The  gymnastic  and 
hippie  are  best  known  to  us  through  the  Olympic 
games,  where  they  gradually  assumed  the  form  which 
we  are  about  to  describe.  These  gymnastic  and 
hippie  contests  consisted  partly  of  athletic  sports, 
partly  of  horse  and  chariot  races.  The  athletic  sports 
were,  (1)  Running  (dgopog),  either  once  through  the 
Stadion  (one  hundred  and  twenty-five  paces — six  hun- 
dred Greek  feet),  or  to  the  end  and  back  again  (dtav).og 
introduced  b.  c.  724),  or  twice  to  the  end  and  back 

1 The  town  is  Nemea.,  the  adjective  Nemean. — N ifila,  Nemea  ; Nc- 
praia;  and  Nf/zciof.  Nemceus,  and  Nemeaeus ; but  Livy  has  Nemea,  arum 
for  the  Nemean  Games,  according  to  Freund. 

2 We  find  in  the  other  Grecian  states  smaller  games,  called  ’OXCfima 
and  IlvOia.  There  were  also  in  particular  spots  Neptm  and  "I aQ^aa. 


150  MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIUUITIES. 

(exyinmog  Spoking),  or  a longer  course,  the  extent  of 
which  is  variously  given  (doXiyog).  The  race  was  per- 
formed either  by  runners  in  armour  ( onXirodQOfiot ),  or 
unarmed  and  naked  (xpiXoi,  yvfikpp).  (2)  Wrestling 
(ndXtj,  introduced  b.  c.  708).  (3)  Boxing  (nvyurj — b.  c. 

688),  in  which  the  hands  were,  bound  round  with 
thongs  (Spidvzeg)  loaded  with  lumps  of  lead  ( cestus ). 
(4)  Throwing  the  quoit  (Si'axog),  a heavy  plate  of  iron 
or  stone.  (5)  Leaping  (aXfxa)  with  heavy  weights  of 
lead  (altTjQtg)  in  the  hands.  (6)  Throwing  the  spear 
(uxav).  369.  A union  of  the  boxing  and  wrestling 
matches  was  called  nayxQuzi ov  (introduced  b.  c.  648). 
The  “five  games”  (ntvza&Xov,  added  b.  c.  708)  com- 
prehended alfia,  dttwog  (StaxofioXtcc),  uxoiv  ( ny.ovziov ),  8q6- 
fiog,  ndlr\.  Anciently  there  were  two  ages  (nuidsg*  and 
ui’dQsg)  for  combatants  in  gymnastic  games.  The  num- 
ber was  afterwards  increased  to  three.  Horse-races, 
which  were  held  in  the  innoSpouog,  were  either  riding 
(on  the  in  nog  yJh]g,  introduced  b.  c.  648)  or  driving  a 
pair  (ovvcoQi’g)  or  four  horses  (zt&Qinnov),  which  was  the 
most  splendid  of  all  the  sports.  The  horses  were 
either  young  (ncSXoi)  or  “aged”  (zi;Xeiot).  An  ap/ua5 
ztXstov  (added  b.  c.  680)  was  required  to  go  twelve 
times  round  the  course.  370.  The  honour  of  victory 
was  conferred,  not  on  the  riders  or  charioteers,  but  on 
the  proprietors  of  the  horses  or  charioteers,  who  were 
sometimes  absent,  and  even  now  and  then  females. 
The  musical  games  consisted  originally  entirely  of  mu- 
sic, viz.,  playing  on  the  xiOapa  and  on  the  avXog — and 
singing  to  the  Cithara  ( xi&uQcpdi'ci ) and  flute  (avXqidiu) 
At  a later  period  we  find  dramas  introduced  (aycovsg 
diowmaxoi),  as  well  as  various  exhibitions  and  recita- 
tions (imSe(gag) . There  were  also  exhibitions  of  pic- 
tures. The  judges  of  the  musical  contests  were  styled 
y.nmai,  those  of  the  gymnastic  and  hippie  sports,  §qcl- 
fkvicu. 

3 Latterly  the  Athletes  at  the  Olympic  games  were  all  naked — a prac- 
tice introduced,  as  far  as  related  to  the  dpiips,  as  early  as  b.  c.  720. 

4 Apdfios  and  miXij,  for  boys  seem  to  have  been  added  in  b.  c.  632 — • 
vivrcL0\ovt  in  628 — nvyfiri,  in  b.  c.  616. 

* The  word  dirijra  is  used  to  express  a racing  chariot  drawn  by  mules 


POINTS  OF  UNION  FOR  ALL  GREECE. 


151 


§ 7.  Rewards  of  the  Victors. 

371.  The  Olympic6  and  Nemean  games  were  for 
{he  most  part  gymnastic  and  hippie,  the  Pythian  and 
Isthmian  comprised  also  musical  contests.  The  Py- 
thian were  originally  citharcedic  contests,  but  after- 
wards, when  the  management  of  them  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  Amphictyons,  gymnastic  and  hippie  sports 
were  added,  and  the  musical  exhibition  increased  by 
the  addition  of  the  avlog  and  avXmdia,  which  however 
was  afterwards  discontinued.  The  solemnities  con- 
nected with  these  sports,  of  which  we  know  little  ex- 
cept from  the  Olympic  games,  consisted  principally  of 
sacrifices,  processions  ( nominal ')  and  similar  religious 
ceremonies,  in  which  ambassadors  deputed  by  the 
states  ( OsbjQoi ) took  part.  The  conquerors  (IeqovTxcu, 
6lvfimony.ai,  nvQiovixcu,  &c.  [«]),  were  publicly  pro- 
claimed, crowned  with  the  chaplet  of  victory,  and  pre- 
sented to  the  people  with  palm-branches  in  their  hands. 
372.  The  Olympic  crown  of  victory  was  of  wild 
olive  (xoztvog)  from  the  grove  Altis,  the  Pythian  of 
laurel,  the  Nemean  of  ivy,  and  the  Isthmian  of  the 
leaves  of  the  pine.  Victory,  at  the  Olympic  games 
(Oleoma  nxijv)  especially,  was  rewarded  with  distin- 
guished honours.  Feasts  were  given  to  the  conqueror, 
not  only  immediately  after  the  victory,  in  Olympia,  but 
also  on  his  return  to  his  native  country  ( [imvixta ).  The 
year  was  named  after  the  victors,  who  were  honoured 
with  statues  and  laudatory  hymns.  The  states  in 
which  they  were  born,  and  which  shared  their  glory, 
granted  them  important  distinctions  and  privileges  for 
the  remainder  of  their  lives,  such  as  7iqoeSq!c(,  or  the 
place  of  honour  at  the  public  games,  and  cutleia.  or 
immunity  from  public  burdens.  In  Athens  a part  of 


8 Nero  was  the  first  who  established  an  Agon  in  tragedy  and  citha- 
rcedic music,  but  we  find  at  an  earlier  period  contests  of  Ceryces  and 
Salplst®  (aaXmiTTfis,  later  form  of  o-aAiriyic-es).  The  recitations  which 
took  place,  were  not  a part  of  the  solemnity  ; but  poets,  historians,  and 
rhetoricians  availed  themselves  of  that  opportunity  to  read  their  composi- 
"ions  before  a large  assembly. 


152 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


their  reward  was  entertainment  in  the  Prytaneum.  In 
Sparta  they  had  the  right  of  standing  next  to  the  king 
on  the  field  of  battle. 

§ 8.  The  Olympiads,  and  the  computation  of  time 
founded  on  them. 

373.  Each  Grecian  state  had,  generally  speaking, 
its  own  mode  of  reckoning  time,  as  well  as  its  own 
weights,  measures,  and  coinage.  In  public  documents 
the  year  was  in  most  cases  named  after  one  of  the 
chief  officers  of  state ; e.  g.  at  Athens  after  the  first  of 
the  nine  annual  Archons  (him  who  was  especially 
designated  6 uqxcov)  ; at  Sparta,  after  the  first  of  the 
yearly  Ephors,  and  in  the  same  manner  elsewhere. 
As  the  beginning  of  the  year  was  different  in  different 
states,  and  the  months,  although  all  lunar,  were  not 
only  differently  named,  but  varied  also  on  account  of  a 
diversity  in  the  mode  of  intercalation,  a method  was 
devised  by  the  legislators  for  a general  system  of  chro- 
nological reckoning  by  the  adoption  of  the  list  of  Olym- 
pic victors,  whose  names  were  inscribed  on  pillars  with 
great  accuracy  under  the  inspection  of  the  Hellanodicae, 
and  subsequently  arranged  in  regular  lists.  374.  Even 
Thucydides  (bom  b.  c.  471),  sometimes  indicates  the 
dates  of  events  by  referring  to  contemporary  victors 
in  the  Pancration  (not  like  later  writers,  in  the  Sta- 
dion) ; but  Timseus  (born  b.  c.  356),  whose  works  are 
lost,  seems  to  have  been  the  first  who  regularly  em- 
ployed the  Olympic  list  as  a chronicle  ; the  oldest  ex- 
tant historian,  however,  whose  writings  contain  such 
an  arrangement  of  events,  is  Polybius  (born  b.  c.  205). 
This  mode  of  reckoning  time  was  never  used  in  com- 
mercial transactions  or  in  the  affairs  of  private  life. 

§ 9.  Mode  of  reducing  the  Olympic  reckoning  to  that  of 
the  Christian  era. 

375.  The  Olympic  games  were  held  every  fifth 
year  at  the  full  moon  nearest  the  summer  solstice. 


POINTS  OF  UNION  FOR  ALL  GREECE. 


153 


The  beginning  of  the  Olympic  year  may  therefore  be 
fixed  on  or  about  the  first  of  July.  In  order  to  find  the 
year  of  the  Christian  era  which  corresponds  to  a given 
Olympic  year  we  must  proceed  thus  : — 

376.  A)  For  an  event  that  happened  between  July  1 

and  Dec.  31  (inclusive). 

a)  Subtract  one  from  the  Olympiad. 

b)  Multiply  the  remainder  by  four. 

c)  Add  to  the  product  the  year  of  the  current 

Olympiad. 

. d)  (1)  If  the  sum  is  less  than  776,  subtract  it  from 
777. 

(2)  If  it  is  greater  than  776,  subtract  776  from  it. 
Example. 

In  what  year  b.  c.  did  the  battle  of  Plataea  happen, 
which  took  place  in  the  Attic  month  Boedromion,  in 
the  second  year  of  the  75th  Olympiad? 

a)  75—1=74 

b ) 74X4=296 

c)  296+2=298 

d ) 777—298=479. 

Answer.  The  battle  of  Plataea  nappened 
479  b.  c. 

377.  B)  For  an  event  that  happened  between  January 

1 and  June  30  (inclusive). 

Take  steps  a)  b)  c ) d)  as  in  A ; but  e)  (1)  subtract 
one  from  the  remainder  so  found,  if  the  sum  in  c is  less 
than  776 ; (2)  add  one  to  it,  if  it  is  greater  than  776 
(i.  e.  subtract  one  for  a year  b,  c.  : add  one  for  a year 

A.  D.). 

Example  1. 

The  date  of  the  building  of  Rome  (according  to 
the  cera  Varroniana)  is  01.  6,  3,  on  the  spring  festival 
Parilia.  In  what  year  b.  c.  was  Rome  built  ? 

7* 


154 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


a)  6—1  = 5 

b)  5X4=20 

c)  20+3=23 

d)  777—23=754 

e)  754—1=753. 

Answer.  The  date  of  the  building  of  Rome 
(according  to  the  cera  Varroniana)  is  the 
spring  of  b.  c.  753. 

Example  2. 

Reduce  01.  224,  1,  to  the  reckoning  b.  c.  or  a.  d. 

a)  224—1=223 

b)  223X4=892 

c)  892+1=893 

d)  893 — 776=117  (if  the  event  happened  between 

July  1 and  December  31.) 

e ) 117+1=118  (if  the  event  happened  between 

January  1 and  July  30.) 


B.  Oracles,  especially  the  Oracle  of 

Delphi. 

§ 10.  Oracles  in  general— -the  Oracle  of  Dodona. 

378.  It  was  an  extremely  ancient  belief  in  Greece, 
that  the  gods,  even  after  they  had  ceased  to  manifest 
themselves  to  men  in  a visible  form,  were  still  accus- 
tomed to  reveal  their  will  in  various  ways.  The  power 
of  understanding  such  revelations  generally  resided  in 
individuals,  such  as  Calchas  in  the  Iliad ; or  in  fami- 
lies— as  the  Iamidae,  Clytiadae,  and  Telliadsef'or  in 
particular  places,  which  were  supposed  to  be  favoured 
by  the  immediate  presence  of  the  divinity.  Thus  at  a 
very  early  period  mention  is  made  of  an  oracle  at  Do- 
dona (JcnSawrj)  in  Thesprotia,  where  a Pelasgian  race, 
the  Zsllot  or  perhaps  'Eliot  were  settled.  379.  The 
Pelasgic  Zeus  (of  whom  these  Selli  are  termed  the 
ministers,  vnoytjvui,  Homer  II.  xvi.  233),  was  believed 


POINTS  OP  UNION  FOR  ALL  GREECE.  155 

to  make  his  revelations  here  by  means  of  the  rustling 
of  a sacred  oak  (Sqvs  vxiilxoftog,  Od.  xiv.  828 ; qirjog 
nvluia — Soph.  Trach.  169),  and  by  the  ringing  of  a 
brazen  caldron  (A#j8//<,-,  zlcoSaruior  %u?.y.uo v).  The  ora- 
cular response  was  interpreted  by  old  women  (ne).eid8ei 
or  priests  (zojj.oiooi) . The  reputation  of  this  orach 
declined  at  an  early  period,  especially  as  that  of  Delphi 
became  more  renowned  ; we  hear,  however,  of  priest- 
esses at  Dodona  long  after  its  decline. 

§11.  The  Oracle  of  Apollo  at  Delphi. 

380.  The  most  renowned  oracle  of  Greece,  which 
w^as  often  consulted  not  only  by  the  Grecian,  but  bj 
foreign  states,  was  the  Delphic,  which  derives  its  name 
from  the  city  of  Delphi,  anciently  called  Ilv&co  (11.  ii. 
519),  in  the  district  of  Phocis,  near  Parnassus.  Its 
■wigm  is  involved  in  fabulous  obscurity.  It  owed  its 
celebrity  principally  to  the  circumstance,  that  the  Hel- 
lenes, particularly  the  Dorians,  w?ho  in  early  times 
"welt  in  its  neighbourhood,  and  traced  their  origin 
Dm  Apollo,  afterwards  spread  themselves  over  the 
whole  of  Greece,  and  diffused  a belief  in  the  sanctity 
of  their  god  and  of  his  oracle.  381.  It  soon  became 
the  universal  oracle  of  all  Greece,  acquired  great 
wrealth  (II.  ix.  404),  partly  through  the  offerings  of 
those  who  consulted  it  (Croesus),  partly  from  the  tithe  of 
spoils  taken  in  war,  and  was  placed  under  the  protection 
of  the  Amphictyons.7  According  to  a Grecian  notion, 
which  w7e  first  find  mentioned  in  Pindar,  the  oracle 
of  Delphi  was  the  centre  or  navel  of  the  earth  (pnqiu7.bg 
zrjS  ylfi),  a circumstance  noticed  also  in  the  inscriptions 
on  Delphic  coins.  382.  The  highest  degree  of  respect 
was  paid  to  this  oracle  by  the  Dorians,  especially  the 
Spartans  ; and  as  the  most  important  ancient  institu- 
tions of  Sparta,  such  as  the  divided  sovereignty  of  the 
Pleraclidas  and  the  legislation  of  Lycurgus,  were  attri- 
buted to  the  counsel  of  Apollo,  the  Lacedaemonians  in 
after  times  never  undertook  any  affair  of  importance 


7 The  possession  of  it  belonged  to  the  free  town  of  Delphi. 


156 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


without  applying  to  the  oracle,  for  which  purpose  there 
were  magistrates,  named  Pythii,  chosen  by  the  Kings. 
But  even  at  Athens  and  in  other  states  the  oracle  had 
great  influence  on  legislation  and  morals  ; and  on  the 
preservation  of  civil  order.  Although  it  was  of  little 
avail  in  putting  a stop  to  wars  among  the  Greeks 
themselves,  it  contributed  to  raise  their  courage  in  the 
Persian  wars,  and  we  find  from  Herodotus,  that  in  his 
days  it  was  still  regarded  by  the  people  with  a full  be- 
lief in  its  divine  authority. 

§ 12.  Decline  of  the  Delphic  Oracle. 

383.  From  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian  wax’,  the 
oracle  laboui'ed  under  the  suspicion  of  unduly  favouring 
the  Spartans ; and  with  the  decay  of  ancient  piety  and 
traditional  belief  in  the  existence  of  the  gods,  it  sank 
more  and  more  into  disrepute,  especially  as  its  own 
character  had  declined,  till  it  at  last  became  a mere 
stipendiary  of  Philip  of  Macedon  ( Tlv&ia  quhnni^ovau). 
From  that  time  not  only  its  great  estimation  but  its 
treasures  gi'adually  melted  away.  It  was  however 
consulted  so  late  as  the  fourth  century  of  the  Christian 
era  by  the  Emperor  Julian. 

§ 13.  Its  arrangements. 

384.  At  a very  early  period  thei’e  seems  to  have 
been  a Temple  at  Delphi,  which  was  burnt  down  in 
b.  c.  548,  and  rebuilt  on  a large  and  more  magnificent 
scale.  In  the  sanctuary  of  the  Temple  w'as  a hole, 
over  which  there  stood  a tripod  (rQinov g xQrjOTrjQiog) ; in 
this  was  an  opening  (o)pog),  on  which  the  priestess 
( UvQia ),  after  the  performance  of  some  preparatory 
ceremonies,  seated  herself  to  l'eceive  the  inspiration  of 
the  god.  The  response  was  given  to  the  inquirer  by 
a minister  of  the  oracle  {nQocprjTK'g),  generally  in  verse, 
but  sometimes  in  prose.  Its  meaning  was  often  ob- 
scure and  ambiguous  {’AnolXav  losing).  385.  At  first 
the  oracles  were  delivei’ed  only  in  one  particular 


POINTS  OP  UNION  FOK  PARTS  OP  GREECE  157 


month ; but  latterly,  when  the  number  of  inquirers 
increased,  a portion  of  every  month  was  set  apart  for 
that  purpose.  The  servants  of  the  oracle  were  ; ocnoi, 
the  sacrificing  priests,  chosen  out  of  the  five  Delphic 
priestly  families  ; nnocfijuu,  the  ministers  or  interpreters 
of  the  oracle ; and  an  inferior  order  called  the  ttiqi- 
tjytjTai,  who  conducted  strangers  round  the  temple. 
There  were  also  female  attendants  (agoanoXoi  yvvaiy.ea). 

§ 14.  Other  Oracles. 

386.  There  were  several  other  oracles,  such  as  the 
oracle  of  Apollo  at  Delos,  at  Patara  in  Lycia,  at  Cla- 
ros  near  Colophon,  at  Didyme  near  Miletus  (superin- 
tended by  the  Branchidae),  at  Abas  in  Phocis,  the  cave 
of  Trophonius  near  Lebadea  in  Bceotia,  the  oracle  of 
Zeus  at  Olympia,  the  temple  of  Amphiaraus  at  Oropus 
in  Boeotia,  and  many  others.  The  responses  were 
received  after  a variety  of  preparatory  ceremonies  and 
in  different  manners  ; in  some  places  the  temple  of 
Amphiaraus  for  instance,  by  lying  down  to  sleep  in 
the  temple  (iyyol^tjaig).  As  foreigners  sometimes  con- 
sulted the  oracles  of  Greece,  so  we  find  that  the  Greeks 
themselves  had  recourse  to  foreign  oracles,  for  exam- 
ple, to  that  of  Jupiter  Ammon.8 


POINTS  OF  UNION  FOR  PARTICULAR  PARTS  OF  GREECE. 

A.  League  of  the  Amphictyons. 

§ 1.  Amp hictyonice  in  general. 

387.  A common  worship  and  participation  in  the  same 
religious  ceremonies  created  at  an  early  period  a friendly 

8 Other  modes  of  obtaining  counsel  and  information  respecting  future 
events  were  through  the  written  oracular  sentences  of  the  soothsayers  or 
prophetic  minstrels  (xprtapoXoyoi,  ^pntr^aSoi),  who  must  be  distinguished 
from  the  priests  of  the  oracles  ( nootprjTai , {mo<j>riTiu),  such  as  Bacis  and 
Musaeus ; inspection  of  sacrifices  (Upoaicomu),  the  flight  and  song  of  birds, 
appearances  in  the  heavens  (Sioatijicia),  such  as  lightning,  and  eclipses  of 
die  sun  and  moon,  dreams,  &c 


158 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTlaUITIES. 


relation  between  neighbouring  nations,  even  without  re- 
ference to  any  affinity  of  race  ; and  on  this  were  found- 
ed the  leagues  known  as  uyyiy.rvovuu  (properly  dfiqpotrt- 
ovicu),  or  unions  of  neighbouring  states  who  frequented 
the  same  sanctuary.  Such  leagues  were  not,  like  the 
Symmachiae,  intended  for  mutual  defence  against  ene- 
mies, nor  did  they,  like  the  local  unions,  meet  to  dis- 
cuss the  common  interests  of  the  people  ; not  unfre- 
quently,  however,  they  inculcated  the  observance  of 
such  humane  enactments  as  were  founded  on  justice. 
We  hear  of  several  such  Amphictyoniae ; but  very 
little  is  known  respecting  the  history  and  origin  of 
most  of  them. 

§ 2.  The  Amphictyoniae  at  Thermopylae  and  Delphi , 
Their  extent,  object,  and  history. 

388.  The  most  renowned  among  these  leagues  was 
that  which  assembled  at  Thermopylae,  and  at  the  Tem- 
ple of  the  Pythian  Apollo.  By  the  extension  of  its 
original  numbers  this  society  obtained  a great  name 
throughout  almost  the  whole  of  Greece  (although  it 
never  assumed  the  character  of  a general  Hellenic 
council),  and  acquired  a certain  degree  of  political 
importance,  which  it  long  retained.  The  origin  of  this 
league,  which  was  styled  pre-eminently  “ the  Amphic- 
tyonic,”  is  lost  in  mythical  obscurity.  The  ancients 
derived  the  name  from  Amphictyon,  the  son  of  Deuca- 
lion, brother  of  Hellen,  who  must  undoubtedly  be  con- 
sidered merely  as  a mythical  representative  of  the 
league.  389.  The  members  of  this  league  formed 
twelve  clans,9  all  of  which,  in  ancient  times,  resided  in 
or  near  Thessaly,  and  down  to  the  Macedonian  period 
retained  in  name  the  same  privileges,  although,  in 
fact,  some  of  the  members,  as  the  Dorians,  Ionians, 
and  Thessalians,  entirely  obscured  or  crushed  their 
neighbours.  The  objects  of  the  league  were  the  pro- 

9 Thessalians,  Boeotians,  Dorians,  Ionians,  Perrhsebeans,  Magnesians. 
Locrians,  CEteans,  or  CEnians,  Phthiotic  Achseans,  Malians  or  Melians, 
Phocians,  and  Dolopians. 


POINTS  OF  UNION  FOR  PARTS  OF  GREECE.  159 

mulgation  of  certain  precepts  of  civilization  and  hu- 
manity, tor  the  guidance  of  the  neighbouring  people 
in  their  intercourse  with  one  another,  the  protection 
of  the  temple  at  Delphi,  and  latterly  (from  b.  c.  586) 
the  superintendence  of  the  Pythian  games.  It  was  not, 
however,  intended  either  for  defence  against  foreign 
enemies,  or  for  interference  in  the  internal  affairs  of 
the  states  of  which  it  was  composed  ; consequently  we 
find  that  the  Amphictyonic  council  was  inoperative  in 
the  Peloponnesian  war  and  other  quarrels  of  the  Gre- 
cian states  with  one  another. 

§ 3.  Same  subject  continued . 

390.  On  the  other  hand,  its  efficiency  was  shown 
in  the  so-called  holy  wars  against  violators  of  the  Tem- 
ple (against  Cirrha,  between  the  years  b.  c.  600  and 
590  ; against  Phocis,  355 — 346  ; against  Amphissa, 
340 — 339,  and  against  the  AEtolians,  280).  In  these 
wars,  however,  the  more  powerful  members  of  the  con- 
federacy often  employed  it  as  an  instrument  for  carry- 
ing out  their  own  plans,  as  for  instance,  in  the  case  of 
Philip  of  Macedon,  who  was  admitted  into  the  league 
in  the  room  of  the  Dorians  and  Phocians,  who  never- 
theless were  afterwards  restored.  The  Amphictyonia 
still  survived,  even  when  Greece  was  subjected  to  the 
Romans,  and  continued  to  exist  in  the  time  of  the  em- 
perors, in  a modified  form  given  to  it  by  Augustus. 

§ 4.  Internal  regulations  of  the  Amphictyonic  League. 

391.  The  sanctuaries  of  the  Amphictyons  were, 
the  Temple  of  the  Pythian  Apollo  at  Delphi,  and  the 
Temple  of  the  Amphictyonic  Demeter  at  Anthelanear 
Thermopylae.  Each  year  there  were  two  Amphictyonic 
meetings  at  Delphi  and  Thermopylae  alternately.  The 
number  of  votes  was  twenty-four,  two  for  each  of  the 
twelve  clans ; but  in  what  manner  these  were  appor- 
tioned among  the -states  which  belonged  to  the  more 
important  tribes,  such  as  the  Ionians  and  Dorians,  is 


160 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTiaUITIES. 


not  very  clear.  The  deputies  were  styled  Isgo/iv^iiortg 
and  nvluyoQcu  (probably  there  were  a Hieromnemon 
and  several  Pylagoree  for  each  state),  whose  duties  and 
relation  to  each  other  are  not  very  distinctly  under- 
stood.1 Besides  the  council  there  was  also  a general 
ixxh]<sta,  or  meeting  in  which  all  the  citizens  of  the 
confederate  states  who  happened  to  be  present  took  a 
part. 


B.  Leagues  between  the  Inhabitants  of 
the  same  District. 

§ 5.  Of  such  Leagues  in  general. 

392.  Among  the  various  small  independent  states 
belonging  to  the  same  district,  we  often  hear  of  a sort 
of  confederation  originally  established  in  honour  of  the 
common  god  of  their  race,  but  afterwards  extending 
its  operations  to  the  discussion  of  their  common  inte- 
rests, the  arrangement  of  disputes  with  one  another, 
and  the  passing  of  resolutions  respecting  foreign  wars. 
But  even  here  the  tendency  of  the  Greeks  to  indepen- 
dence and  self-reliance  manifested  itself  in  their  want 
of  unanimity,  or  in  the  endeavours  of  individual  states 
to  obtain  the  superiority  over  their  confederates.  We 
find,  for  example,  such  confederations  among  the  Pho- 
cians  and  Thessalians,  who,  although  divided  into  inde- 
pendent states  with  an  aristocratic  form  of  government, 
chose  on  certain  occasions  a commander-in-chief  or  dic- 
tator (r«j'oV).a  393.  Among  the  Arcadians,  also,  we  find 
(b.  c.  369)  a confederation  formed  against  Sparta,  the 
members  of  which  afterwards  united  in  a league  with 
the  Achaeans,  iEtolians,  or  Spartans.  Among  the 
Ionic  and  Doric  states  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor, 
there  existed  a sort  of  league,  which  however  was  of  a 

1 The  Hieromnemones  formed  a separate  council  (awiipiov'), 

1 After  the  Peloponnesian  war  we  find  tyrants,  and  (b.  c.  376)  Thes- 
saly united  under  the  tyrant  Jason  of  Pherae.  Afterwards  their  country 
was  subject  to  the  Macedonians. 


POINTS  OF  UNION  FOR  PARTS  OF  GREECE.  161 


very  loose  character,  and  did  not  last  long.  As  long 
as  the  superiority  of  Athens  and  Lacedaemon  was  so 
decided,  none  of  these  unions  had  much  political 
weight ; but  as  those  states  gradually  became  weaker 
and  weaker  through  internal  decay  and  their  contests 
with  one  another,  we  find  some  of  the  confederations 
assuming  a greater  degree  of  importance. 

§ 6.  League  of  the  Boeotians. 

394.  In  Boeotia,  which  was  divided  into  several 
independent  states,  there  existed  a confederation3  (to 
roivov  Tom'  Botonwv)  or  religious  union  (nu/jfioiwna)  at 
Coronea.  The  presidents  of  the  league,  who  were 
styled  ftoiandtr/ja,  held  their  office  for  a year,  but  might 
be  continued  for  a longer  time,  or  re-elected.  It  was 
their  duty  to  give  notice  of  the  four  general  meetings 
of  the  council.  At  the  head  of  the  confederation  were 
the  Thebans : the  states  composing  it  were  originally 
oligarchical,  but  had  latterly  suffered  grievously  from 
intestine  contentions  between  oligarchical  and  demo- 
cratical  parties,  in  which  Athens  and  Sparta  occasion- 
ally bore  a part.  395.  The  Thebans,  especially  after 
the  Persian  war,  treated  the  other  states  very  arbitra- 
rily;4 and  from  the  weakness  of  Athens  and  Sparta, 
even  played  for  a short  time  an  important  part  in  the 
affairs  of  Greece,  under  Pelopidas  (who  restored  the 
democratic  constitution  b.  c.  379),  and  Epaminondas. 
But  after  the  death  of  these  statesmen  (Pelopidas  f 
b.  c.  364,  Epaminondas  f b.  c.  362),  they  again  re- 
lapsed into  weakness,  and  were  obliged  to  apply  to 
Philip  of  Macedon  for  help  against  the  Phocians.  He 
however  soon  became  their  enemy,  and  after  the  battle 
of  Chaeronea  (b.  c.  338),  deprived  them  for  ever  of 

3 Previously  to  the  Persian  war,  the  Plataeans  had  formed  an  alliance 
with  Aihens,  and  this  league  continued  until  the  beginning  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian war,  in  which  Plataea  was  destroyed  by  the  Thebans,  and  sub- 
sequently restored  after  the  peace  of  Antalcidas  (b.  c.  387). 

4 At  the  peace  of  Antalcidas  (b.  c.  387)  Thebes  was  compelled  to 
renounce  her  authority  over  the  other  states,  but  this  humiliation  did  not 
jast  long  ; for  after  the  year  379  she  regained  her  ascendency. 


162 


MANUAL  OP  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


their  power.  The  league,  nevertheless,  continued  to 
exist  for  many  years. 

§ 7.  The  Achaean  League. 

396.  The  twelve  cities  of  the  Achasans,  which  on 
account  of  their  situation  remained  for  a long  time 
unaffected  by  the  political  convulsions  of  Greece,  had 
formed  from  the  oldest  times  a quiet  and  uniform 
league,  which  lasted  until  the  Macedonian  period, 
when  it  was  dissolved.  During,  however,  the  disputes 
of  the  Macedonians  with  each  other,  it  was  revived  by 
some  of  the  cities  (about  b.  c.  280)  ; many  others  after- 
wards joining  them  for  the  sake  of  mutual  protection 
and  resistance  to  tyrants,  especially  to  the  domination 
of  the  Macedonians.  Under  Aratus  (f  b.  c.  213),  and 
particularly  under  Philopoemen  (f  b.  c.  183),  this  league 
became  for  a short  time  extremely  powerful ; but  even- 
tually suffered  severely  from  disputes  among  its  mem- 
bers, and  weakened  itself  in  struggles  with  the  yEtoli- 
ans  and  Spartans.  397.  Thus  the  way  was  prepared, 
first  for  the  Macedonians,  and  afterwards  for  the 
Romans,  the  latter  of  whom  were  for  a long  time  on 
friendly  terms  with  the  Achaeans,  but  afterwards 
treated  them  haughtily  ; and  after  their  victory  over 
Perseus,  sent  more  than  one  thousand  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished members  of  the  league  to  Rome,  where  they 
remained  from  b.  c.  167  to  150.  A fresh  war  with 
the  Romans  ended  after  the  taking  of  Corinth  (b.  c. 
146)  in  the  entire  subjugation  of  Achsea,  which  be- 
came a Roman  province. 

§ 8.  Constitution  of  the  Achaean  League. 

398.  Twice  in  the  year  the  citizens  of  the  allied 
states  held  their  ordinary  meetings  for  the  discussion 
of  important  matters  affecting  the  league,  such  as  the 
voting  of  war,  peace,  or  alliances,  the  admission  of  new 
members,  the  settlement  of  disputes  with  one  another, 
and  the  adoption  of  new  laws  for  the  regulation  of  the 


POINTS  OF  UNION  FOR  PARTS  OF  GREECE,  163 


union.  These  meetings  were  generally  held  in  the 
grove  of  Zeus  Homagyrios,  Arnarion  near  OEgion. 
Their  principal  officers  were,  a aiQair\y<)q?  an  innuQyog, 
and  a yQaminrevg,  who  continued  a year  in  office.  We 
read  also  of  ten  da/uovQyoL  Each  city  was  indepen- 
dent, and  enjoyed  equal  rights  with  the  rest;  the 
maintenance  of  their  democratic  constitution  was, 
however,  as  invariably  their  object,  as  the  establish- 
ment of  a tyranny  was  that  of  the  Macedonians. 

§ 9.  The  JEtolian  League. 

399.  In  AStolia,  which  on  account  of  its  situation 
continued  to  be  independent,  there  existed  a provincial 
confederation,  of  which  express  mention  is  first  made 
during  the  wars  of  Greece  under  the  successors  of 
Alexander,  when  the  rough  and  warlike  -Etolians 
appeared  on  the  stage  as  the  most  dangerous  enemies 
of  the  Macedonians,  and  drew  several  other  states  into 
the  league.  At  a later  period  they  formed  an  alliance 
with  the  Romans  against  Philip  of  Maceddn,  the  son 
of  Demetrius ; but  the  favour  shown  by  Rome  to  the 
Achseans  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  fEtolians,  and  led 
them  to  call  in  Antiochus  of  Syria,  whose  defeat  (b.  c. 
189)  placed  them  under  the  Roman  yoke.  The  JEto- 
lian league  nevertheless  continued  to  subsist  for  many 
years  longer. 

§ 10.  Constitution  of  the  EEtolian  League. 

400.  All  the  allied  states  were  independent  and 
equal ; but  questions  relating  to  war,  peace,  and  the 
affairs  of  the  league  were  decided  at  a general  meet- 
ing. These  meetings  were  either  the  greater,  held 
every  year  near  the  Temple  of  Apollo  at  Thermos,  or 
the  lesser  which  sat  permanently  and  was  composed 
of  individual  delegates  (anoxhjToi) . The  highest  officer 
of  the  league  was  a Strategos.  We  find  mention 
also  made  of  a Hipparch  and  a Grammateus.  The  con- 
stitution in  all  essential  particulars  was  iemocratical. 

4 Afterwards  two  Strategi. 


] G4 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


C.  Symmachia  and  Hegemonia 
§ 1.  History  of  the  Hegemonia. — Sparta. 

401.  In  addition  to  the  local  confederations  just 
described,  we  find  leagues  between  several  districts 
and  states  for  the  purpose  of  mutual  defence  (avnyccp'o), 
in  which  one  leading  state  exercised  a legal  recognized 
supremacy  (fjysyovia).  Thus  most  of  the  Peloponnesian 
states  (with  the  exception  of  Argos  and  some  of  the 
smaller  districts)  formed,  long  before  the  Persian  war,  a 
confederation  for  mutual  counsel  respecting  their  com- 
mon interests  and  for  the  decision  of  questions  relating 
to  peace  and  war.  At  the  head  of  this  league  was 
Sparta,  which  conducted  the  war,  appointed  com- 
manders, and  settled  the  contingents  of  troops  and 
money.  In  the  war  against  Xerxes  a confederation 
was  formed  between  most  of  the  Grecian  states,  of 
which  Sparta,  with  consent  of  the  Peloponnesians, 
assumed  the  command.  The  place  of  meeting  for  the 
deputies  at  the  beginning  of  the  Persian  war  was  the 
Isthmus.  After  the  battle  of  Mycale  the  colonies  of 
Asia  Minor  were  also  comprised  in  this  league. 

§ 2.  Sparta  and  Athens. 

402.  Sparta  was,  however,  soon  compelled  to  cede 
the  Hegemonia  by  sea  (b.  c.  477)  to  Athens,  whose 
naval  force  was  more  considerable,  and  who  had  more- 
over a powerful  support  in  her  Asiatic  colonies ; and 
at  a later  period  Athens  created  also  a Hegemonia  in 
opposition  to  that  of  Sparta,  so  that  whilst  the  latter 
still  remained  at  the  head  of  the  Peleponnesian  league, 
Athens  by  degrees  drew  to  her  side  a union  of  the 
Ionians  in  the  islands,  the  colonies  on  the  coasts  of 
Asia  Minor,  Thrace,  and  Macedonia,  and  some  of  the 
Grecian  states.  But  she  exercised  her  power  very 
capriciously,  and  at  last  went  so  far  as  to  treat  the 
allies  as  her  vassals  ( vni\v.ooi ),  instead  of  free  and  inde- 
pendent states  (uvTovoyoi).  403.  At  first  they  were 


POINTS  OF  UNION  FOIt  PARTS  OF  GREECE.  165 


merely  required  to  furnish  ships  and  a moderate  con- 
tingent in  money  (qjogot,  originally  fixed  by  Aristides  at 
460  talents),  which  was  kept  at  Delos  under  the  super- 
intendence of  Attic  officers  ( ellrporufiiui ) ; but  when 
the  allies  themselves  inadvertently  proposed  that  in- 
stead of  doing  military  service  they  should  pay  a sum 
of  money,  the  power  of  Athens  was  greatly  increased, 
and  she  compelled  them  for  the  most  part  to  pay  tribute 
(yoQov  vnozeXeig)  at  her  own  discretion.  The  treasury 
was  removed  from  Delos  to  Athens  b.  c.  461.  Under 
Pericles  and  Alcibiades  the  tribute  was  increased  ; and 
Athens  interfered  in  various  ways  in  the  government 
of  the  allied  states,  requiring  them  to  adopt  democratic 
forms,  and  even  claiming  jurisdiction  in  affairs  of  im- 
portance, and  sending  her  emissaries  to  watch  their 
proceedings. 

§ 3.  Sparta , Athens,  Thebes,  Macedonia. 

404.  The  discontent  caused  by  these  usurpations 
led  the  other  states  to  attach  themselves  to  Sparta,  and 
hence  arose  the  Peloponnesian  war  (b.  c.  431 — 404) ; 
but  when  Sparta  herself  after  her  victory  also  abused 
her  hegemonic  authority,  and  endeavoured  every  where 
to  introduce  the  hated  oligarchical  form  of  government, 
then  Athens  by  degrees  again  raised  herself  to  power, 
especially  after  Conon’s  victory  off  Cnidus  (b.  c.  394) : 
and  even  the  peace  of  Antalcidas  (b.  c.  387),  in  which 
the  Persian  king  himself  acted  as  umpire,  and  pro- 
nounced all  the  states  in  Greece  and  the  islands  free 
and  independent,  effected  no  essential  change  in  her 
power,  which  especially  increased  after  the  year  b.  c. 
371.  405.  The  justness  and  mildness,  however,  which 

Athens  had  exercised  at  the  beginning  for  the  sake  of 
consolidating  her  newly  regained  power,  did  not  last 
long,  and  her  Hegemonia  was  for  the  most  part  lost 
through  fresh  abuses  (the  war  of  the  confederate  states 

b.  c.  357 — 355).  The  feebleness  of  Athens  and  Sparta 
placed  Thebes  for  a short  time  (b.  c.  371  Leuctra — b. 

c.  362  Mantinga)  in  a position  to  claim  hegemonical 


166 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIOUITIES. 


authority.  Philip  of  Macedon  availed  himself  of  these 
disputes  and  the  decline  of  the  states,  and  after  the 
victory  of  Chseronea  assumed  the  Hegemonia,  which 
soon  became  a Macedonian  tyranny,  and  was  feebly 
resisted  by  the  Greeks,  until  the  power  of  Rome  at  last 
swallowed  up  both  the  contending  parties. 


Colonial  Relations. 

§ 1.  History  of  Colonization. 

406.  The  establishment  of  Grecian  colonies  ( dnoi 
xiat)  may  be  ti'aced  back  to  the  expedition  of  the  Hera- 
clldae  and  its  concomitant  events.  Penthilus,  the  son 
of  Orestes,  is  said  to  have  led  colonies  from  Bceotia  to 
Lesbos,  Tenedos,  and  some  of  the  smaller  islands 
(Aeolian,  (Achsean)  on  the  coasts  of  Mysia.  South  of 
these,  on  the  coast  of  Lydia,  in  northern  Caria  and 
some  islands  of  the  Aegean  sea,  settlements  were 
founded  by  the  Ionians,  who  had  taken  refuge  in  At- 
tica, after  they  were  driven  from  the  north  coast  of 
Peloponnesus  by  the  Acheeans,  and  thence  had  gone 
out  under  the  sons  of  Cadmus  to  seek  new  abodes. 
407.  In  conjunction  with  people  from  various  other 
tribes  they  colonized  a great  part  of  the  Cyclades,  and 
founded  on  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  neigh- 
bouring islands  independent  states,  which,  although, 
loosely  connected  by  a sort  of  league  (Jlandvia),  were 
often  involved  in  hostilities  with  each  other,  but  raised 
themselves  by  their  skill  and  commercial  industry  to  an 
important  position.  From  all  of  them,  especially  from 
Miletus,  were  sent  out  a crowd  of  minor  colonies, 
especially  around  the  coasts  of  the  Pontus  Euxisus 
and  the  Propontis.  Lastly  followed  colonies  of  the 
Dorians  from  Megara  and  Argolis,  which  settled  them- 
selves  further  south  on  the  coasts  of  Caria  and  the 
neighbouring  islands,  where  they  also  established  a sort 
of  league  (the  Temple  of  the  Triopian  Apollo). 


POINTS  OF  UNION  FOR  PARTS  OF  GREECE.  167 


§ 2.  Same  subject  continued. 

408.  Magna  Grascia  was  also  colonized  at  an  early 
period  by  Greek  (especially  by  Achaean  and  Dorian) 
settlers.  From  Euboea,  especially  Chalcis,  were  sent 
several  Ionian  colonies  to  the  coasts  of  Italy  (of  these 
the  most  ancient  was  Cumae),  and  to  Sicily,  and  also 
to  the  coasts  of  Thrace  and  Macedonia  (Chalcidice). 
We  find  Doric  settlements  in  Sicily;  as  Syracuse  (a 
Corinthian  colony  founded  probably  b.  c.  734),  Gela 
(about  b.  c.  689),  and  Agrigentum : on  the  shores  ot 
the  Ionian  sea,  as  Corcyra  (a  Corinthian  colony) ; and 
on  the  coast  of  Thrace,  as  Byzantium  (a  Megarian 
one).  We  find  also  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean, 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone  (Massilia,  founded  by 
Phocseans  from  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  about  b.  c. 
600),  to  the  extremity  of  the  Euxine,  not  only  on  the 
European  and  Asiatic,  but  also  on  the  African  side 
(Cyrene,  founded  by  Dorians  from  Thera  b.  c.  631,  ac- 
cording to  Eusebius),  occupied  by  Grecian  colonies, 
which  settled  on  advantageous  spots,  and  speedily  rose 
into  importance,  diffusing  every  where  the  Greek  lan- 
guage and  Greek  civilization. 

§ 3.  Causes  of  Colonization. 

409.  The  establishment  of  most  of  the  Grecian 
colonies  was  the  effect  of  those  movements,  which 
were  consequent  on  the  great  immigration  of  the  Do- 
rians, or,  in  some  instances,  the  result  of  later  wars. 
Colonization  in  the  Grecian  states  was  a government 
measure  adopted  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  advan- 
tageous emporia  for  trade,  or  in  order  to  get  rid  of  the 
superfluous  population  (especially  in  oligarchical  states) 
as  an  outlet  for  political  discontent. 

§4.  Mode  of  sending  out  Colonies. — Their  relation  to 
the  Mother  Country. 

410.  The  colonies  which  owed  their  establishment 
to  a decree  of  the  government  at  home,  were  sent  out 
after  the  oracle  had  been  duly  consulted.  At  the  head 


168 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


of  the  expedition  was  placed  one  or  more  chosen  own r- 
zai  Generally  the  colonists  took  with  them  fire  kindled 
in  the  Prytaneum  of  the  mother  state,  and  in  most  in- 
stances closely  copied  her  religious  institutions.  At 
certain  periods  religious  embassies  (OtcoQicu)  were  sent 
to  the  great  festivals  of  the  mother  country.  A par- 
ticular cultus  was  frequently  introduced  for  the  Oikis- 
tae.  The  colonies  bore  the  same  emblems  on  their 
coins,  and  showed  especial  honour  and  respect  to  the 
representatives  of  the  mother  state  at  their  own  public 
solemnities.  One  instance  of  this  filial  regard  for  the 
country  from  which  they  derived  their  common  origin, 
may  be  found  in  the  practice  peculiar  to  the  otherwise 
independent  Grecian  colonies,  of  assisting,  or  at  least 
of  not  waging  war  against  each  other. 

§ 5.  Political  Constitution  of  the  Colonies. 

411.  The  laws  and  constitution  of  the  colonies 
were  generally  a copy  of  those  at  home,  but  in  a politi- 
cal as  well  as  a scientific  view,  alterations  were  often 
made  in  the  colonies,  which  sometimes ’re-acted  on  the 
mother  country.  The  establishment  of  most  of  the 
colonies  happened  during  the  period  of  the  aristocracy, 
and  aristocratic  institutions  were  in  consequence  the 
most  ancient,  generally  speaking;  but  their  rapid  rise, 
their  trade  and  civilization,  soon  awakened  the  spirit 
of  republicanism.  412.  Here  also  we  find  various 
political  struggles,  a violent  democracy  with  its  usual 
result,  the  tyranny  of  an  individual ; and  in  some 
places  the  form  of  a timocracy,  as  for  instance  the 
government  of  the  thousand  richest  men  among  the 
citizens  in  some  of  the  Italian  colonies.  Political  dis- 
putes often  occasioned  the  passing  of  wholesome  laws, 
like  those  of  Zaleucus  among  the  Epizephyrian  Locri, 
or  of  Charondas  in  Catana,  about  the  middle  of  the 
seventh  century.  In  one  portion  of  Magna  Graecia 
the  doctrines  of  Pythagoras  (who  arrived  in  Italy  b.  c. 
530?,  and  died  in  500)  occasioned  political  revolutions, 
aristocratical  forms  being  introduced,  which  were  sup- 
pressed by  the  people  within  a few  years  (b.  c.  504). 


POINTS  OF  UNION  FOR  PARTS  OF  GREECE.  169 


§ 6.  Appendix  concerning  the  Cleruclnce. 

413.  We  must  distinguish  between  colonization 
and  the  y.lr^oijica,6  or  partition  by  lot,  of  a country  ob- 
tained by  conquest  or  otherwise  among  certain  citi- 
zens ; the  new  settlers  having  their  own  magistrates, 
but  retaining  all  their  rights  as  citizens,  and  being  still 
subject  to  the  laws  of  their  country.  The  conquered 
inhabitants,  if  not  expelled,  were  either  admitted  to  the 
enjoyment  of  political  rights,  or  reduced  to  the  condi- 
tion of  slaves,  a mode  of  proceeding  which  was  also 
very  common  in  countries  colonized  by  the  Greeks. 

6 This  system  was  most  prevalent  at  Athena. 


S 


QUESTIONS 


ON  THE 

GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


1.  Who  is  our  principal  authority  for  the  Heroic  Age  ? Mention  the 
historians,  geographers,  and  orators,  from  whom  we  derive  considerable 
Knowledge  of  Grecian  Antiquity?  On  what  subjects  do  Plato  and  Aris- 
totle give  us  much  information?  Mention  some  poets,  grammarians, 
compilers,  and  lexicographers,  who  supply  much  detached  information. 
What  other  sources  of  our  knowledge  can  you  mention  ? 

2.  Explain  the  difference  between  the  ancient  and  the  more  modern 

name  of  Hellas  (a  and  note).  What  were  the  three  divisions  of  Hellas 
in  the.  general  acceptation  of  the  term  ? 3.  Divide  continental  (or  north- 

ern) Greece  into  two  portions.  What  connects  northern  Greece  with  the 
Peloponnesus?  4.  Name  (1)  the  districts  of  Peloponnesus  ; (2)  the  more 
remarkable  islands.  Give  the  meaning  and  derivation  of  Cyclades, 
Sporades.1  ^ 

6.  What  is  the  geographical  character  of  Greece  ? What  are  its 
natural  capabilities?  To  what  pursuits  was  the  attention  of  the  Greeks 
directed  from  very  early  times?  To  what  pursuits,  mode  of  life,  or  the 
like,  was  the  situation  of  Greece  unfavourable? 

7.  What  race  is  said  to  have  peopled  Greece  and  the  neighbouring 
countries  in  the  earliest  times?  From  what  country  did  this  tribe  proba- 
bly emigrate,  and  to  what  races  does  it  appear  to  have  been  allied  ? Of 
what  other  tribes  do  we  read  ? What  mention  is  made  of  the  Hellenes 
in  Homer  ? What  tribe  at  last  spread  its  influence  and  name  over  the 
whole  of  Greece  ? What  are  the  names  for  Greeks  in  Homer?  (note  4.) 

8.  Name  the  four  principal  Grecian  tribes,  and  their  traditional  origin. 

9.  What  foreign  immigrations  are  mentioned,  and  what  historical  credit 
do  they  deserve  ? Who  are  said  respectively  to  have  settled  in  Attica, 
Brnotia,  Argolis,  and  other  parts  of  the  Peloponnesus?  From  whom  did 
the  Greeks  leant  the  art  of  writing  ? 

10.  What  is  the  usual  date  of  the  Trojan  war?  From  what  event 
may  we  date  the  supremacy  of  the  Hellenic  tribe  ? 11.  What  tribe  ob- 

tained the  greater  part  of  Peloponnesus  ? Who  were  the  previous  pog- 


1 Cycladesz=cluster-islands  (irikXof  circle) : SporaAes=scattered  isl- 
ands ((r7rof>df,  scattered  : mrupui). 


172 


QUESTIONS  TO 


eessors,  and  what  became  of  them  ? Describe  the  migrations  of  the 
Ionians.  12.  Describe  the  possessions  after  the  age  of  migrations  of  the 
JEolians,  Ionians,  Dorians.  Where  were  pre-Hellenic  tribes  still  found  ? 
Who  then  dwelt  in  Thessaly?  What  were  the  two  tribes  that  possessed 
the  most  distinctly  marked  family  character  ? 

13.  Give  the  character  of  the  Grecian  states  as  gathered  from  Homer. 
Explain  the  synonymical  identity  of  state  and  city  in  Grecian  history. 

14.  When  did  the  constitutions  of  the  states  become  republican?  What 
exception  was  there  ? What  causes  favoured  the  establishment  of  repub- 
lics (or  democracies)  ? 

15.  What  body  paved  the  way  for  the  overthrow  of  the  monarchies? 
Explain  the  terms  by  which  the  aristocracy  were  designated  with  refer- 
ence (1)  to  birth;  (2)  to  the  possession  of  freehold  properly  ; (3)  to  the 
possession  of  a horse  or  performance  of  knightly  service ; (4)  to  wealth  ; 
(5)  to  svpposed  merit.  16.  On  what  other  circumstance  was  the  dis- 
tinction between  an  aristocracy  and  a plebs  founded  ? Mention  some 
race  who  had  been  enslaved  after  the  conquest  of  their  cities. 

17.  Into  what  did  the  aristocracies  often  degenerate?  What  politi- 
cal struggle  ensued  ? What  was  the  term  for  the  people  {plebs)  as  op- 
posed to  an  aristocracy  ? 18.  What  privileges  were  in  many  states 

wrested  from  the  aristocracy?  By  whom  and  when  were  constitutions 
founded  in  the  course  of  these  struggles,  at  Mitylene,  Sparta,  Athens, 
Caiana,  amongst  the  Epizephyrian  Locri,  &c.  19.  What  was  a rvpavvts  ? 

Give  an  instance  of  a rvparvls.  What  was  the  age  of  ‘ tyrannies’  in 
Greece  ? Were  they  necessarily  unfavourable  to  the  St/yos  ? 

20.  Mention  other  causes  (cf.  13)  that  favoured  the  growth  of  democ- 
racies. Who  sometimes  became  leaders  of  the  popular  party  ? What 
was  the  political  effect  of  the  Persian  war?  What  sides  were  usually 
taken  by  the  aristocratic  and  democratic  parties  respectively,  in  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian war?  Give  the  date  of  that  war.  21.  What  party  was  vic- 
torious at  the  end  of  the  Peloponnesian  war  ? What  were  the  conse- 
quences of  this  success?  What  arose  in  other  places?  22.  By  what 
was  the  way  paved  for  the  sovereignty  of  Philip  of  Macedon?  Mention- 
some  flashes  of  the  old  Grecian  spirit  that  appeared  in  the  evil  days  of 
Greece. 

23.  What  event  gave  the  last  blow  to  Grecian  freedom?  When? 
Under  what  name  was  Greece  finally  incorporated,  as  a province,  into  the 
Roman  empire  ? What  states  were  recognized  by  the  Romans  as  liberal 
civitates  ? Who  and  with  what  effect  proclaimed  the  independence  of 
Greece  ? 

24.  What  were  the  two  essential  parts  of  every  Grecian  constitution  ? 

25.  What  distinction  prevailed,  with  reference  to  these  parts,  between  the 
aristocratic  and  the  democratic  states?  Explain  SoKipacia  and  tiSCuj. 

26.  How  was  the  judicial  power  usually  divided  ? 

27.  Which  Greek  tribe  developed  its  powers  the  most  rapidly  ? In 
which  Greek  tribe  had  democracy  the  most  rapid  growth?  Which  was 
the  most  important  Ionic  state  ? Explain  the  progress  and  effects  of 
democracy  at  Athens.  28.  Which  was  the  most  important  Doric  state  ? 
Explain  the  distinction  between  Spartans  and  Periceci.  What  principle 
was  carried  out  to  its  fullest  extent  at  Sparta  ? with  what  effect  ? Men- 
tion the  first  and  the  final  effects  of  the  Spartan  constitution. 

29.  What  was  often  the  only  principle  by  which  the  more  powerful 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


173 


Grecian  states  were  ckeeked  ? What  bonds  of  union  existed  between 
the  Grecian  states  ? Wrhen  did  the  Greeks  always  become  conscious 
of  thoir  nationality?  30.  What  religious  or  quasi-religious  institu- 
tions assisted  in  keeping  up  a national  feeling  ? Mention  the  principal 
Grecian  Oracles. 

31.  By  what  principle  were  particular  states  sometimes  united  ? What 
leagues  obtained  importance  in  later  times  ? 

33.  Mention  a remarkable  distinction  between  Grecian  and  Roman 
colonies. 

34.  Explain  the  term  Heroic  age.  'What  is  the  date  of  the  expedi- 

tion (or  return)  of  the  Heraclidce  ? Of  what  race  were  they  ? Mention 
some  of  the  principal  Heroes  before  the  Trojan  war.  35.  What  is  tho. 
usual  date  of  the  Trojan  war  ? - 

36.  Who  put  down  piracy  ? What  heroes  repressed  robbery  and 
bther  violence?  Mention  some  traces  of  a milder  spirit  that  appear 
amongst  the  general  rudeness  and  coarseness  of  the  heroic  age.  38. 
What  examples  of  friendship  belong  to  this  age  ? what  examples  of 
kindly  intercourse  with  dependents?  Who  was  the  protector  of  the 
stranger?  WTiat  connexions  between  ancestors  were  hereditary?  39. 
Mention  a custom  that  showed  respect  for  the  stranger  as  such.  40.  By 
what  epithets  was  the  respect  for  minstrels  manifested  ? 

41.  What  instance  can  you  mention  of  respect  for  the  jura  gentium  ? 

42.  What  was  the  general  form  of  government  in  the  heroic  age  ? 

43.  How  was  the  kingly  office  regarded?  To  whom  was  the  au- 
thority of  Kings  traced  ? What  are  frequent  epithets  of  kings  in  Homer  ? 
Give  instances  in  which  the  rights  of  kings  were  violated.  44.  What 
traces  do  we  find  in  Homer  of  non-monarchical  governments?  Was  the 
succession  hereditary?  Could  females  succeed?  What  epithets  refer  to 
the  judicial  authority  of  kings?  What  priestly  office  might  the  kings 
perform  ? 45.  What  were  the  royal  insignia  ? what  the  privileges  of 
Kings  ? Explain  Knpvxts,  ripn,  yipas,  Stopa,-  Soirtrai,  dtpiarcg.^ 

46.  By  what  terms  were  the  aristocracy  distinguished  ? What  term 
referred  to  their  advising  the  king?  Explain  olros  ycpovaios. 3 Mention 
some  princes  who  had  councils. 

47.  Who  composed  the  general  Assembly  of  the  people  ( ayopn )? 
Was  it  ever  safe  to  resist  the  open  expression  of  public  opinion?  Were 
the  Assemblies  convened  at  definite  periods  ? Is  any  expression  of  dis- 
sent mentioned  ? Might  any  individual  come  forward  on  his  own  au- 
thority? 48.  Who  on  one  occasion  dared  to  express  his  opinion  unre- 
servedly ? how  did  his  attempt  succeed?  What  names  of  classes  occur? 

49.  What  expression  never  occurs  in  Homer?  Account  for  this. 
Under  whose  especial  protection  w~ as  the  administration  of  justice  ? Did 
the  governments  seem  to  concern  themselves  much  about  private  dis- 
putes ? What  were  the  most  common  cases  that  came  before  the  kings? 
What  was  the  usual  proceeding  in  cases  of  murder  ? 

50.  What  was  the  character  of  the  Homeric  gods?  51.  Explain 

rv^ai,  Xirai : dodcOac,  ev^eadat  ; %£ipas  dre^eiv,  dpiyciv  ; yovvdfa- 

2 QlpicTcs,  customary  dues  to  the  king  (Xnr apas  rrXs Ii*  0E/u<rras):  but 
also  ordinances,  decrees  (of  the  gods),  statutes , laws,  institutions. 

3 A larger  portion  of  wine  by  which  honoured  guests  were  distin- 
guished at  the  king’s  table. 


174 


aUESTIONS  TO 


Oai ,4 5  ancvficti'i  XeIQeiv  : X°0,  evovoal,  axprjroi  :6 7 8 9  Qvciat,  lepa  fii^Eiv.  Explain 
iKardpPn,  tlXecoi,  opsta  rdpvEtv,  Swpciy  dydXpara , 6vea,  ttcttX o;.  52.  By  what 

were  prayers,  libations,  and  sacrifices  also  accompanied  ? 

53.  Explain  vridi,  Mpos,  repero;,  0wp6s.  Where  do  we.  hear  of  an 
aivrov  ? where  of  the  image  of  a deity  ? Who  reformed  public  worship  ? 
Were  there  appointed  priests?  54.  Explain  fia vtie;,  Beoirpdwoi,  rtpaia, 
c rifiara,  otoiVOnoXol , oioiviarat , de£td;  ftpvii  ;6  uvtipo-ndXol.  Ho  we  find  traces 
of  sacerdotal  families?  Was  the  priestly  office  hereditary?  Of  what 
oracles  do  we  read  ? 

55.  What  were  the  weapons  of  the  old  times  ? What  heroes  wielded 
clubs  ? 56.  What  were  the  offensive  arms  of  the  heroic  age  ? Give  the 

terms  for  bows  and  arrows,  quivers,  spear,  sword,  scabbard,  slings,  battle- 
axes.  Explain  pcXia,  and  ovptaxp;  or  aavpwrfip.  57.  What  were  the  de- 
fensive arms?  Explain  XSipm,  <pdXoi,  kotoTtv f,  Ba'ipof  yiaXov.  Give  the 
epithets  of  the  crest.  Explain  ’A xncoL  xa^K0X‘Ta',es-  Why  was  Ajax, 
the  son  Oileus,  Xn>o0wpaf  ? 58.  Explain  ta-dp  ; was  it  synonymous  with 

|d )pa  and  pirpa  ? Explain  KvaptSei,  om'Of,  dmrtiy  d/x^aXdi,  avTV^y  KavovEi, 
rcXapCiv.  What  were  lighter  shields  called  ? What  metal  was  usually 
employed  ? What  other  metals  were  used  ? What  was  the  complete 
equipment  of  a warrior  termed  ? 

59.  How  was  the  fate  of  a battle  mostly  decided  ? Who  are  cele- 
brated for  their  acquaintance  with  discipline  ? With  what  is  the  quiet 
and  steady  march  of  the  Achceans  contrasted  ? 60.  How  did  the  heroes 

generally  fight?  Explain  appa,  t>xea‘  Zilippoi,  dt^vyei  IVn-oi,  vapbopo;'.  hrio- 
\oi , TzapaBdrrji.  Explain  TToXcpoin  yci/ivpai.  Explain  (ln>iv  dyaOdi,  npvXce;, 
rrc^oi,  7 Tvkival  <pd\uyyei , ttv pyni?  ra  tvapa.  61.  How  were  the  spoils 

divided  ? What  became  of  those  who  had  fallen  ? Explain  Zvapa 
ppnrdciiTa?  What  if  a dead  body  remained  in  the  power  of  the  enemy  ? 
Were  prisoners  ever  ransomed? 

62.  Were  sieges  conducted  on  scientific  principles?  Was  Troy  forti- 
fied ? How  did  the  Greeks  protect  their  camp?  Explain  rcXyoi,  npyoi, 
Kpdtrtrai,  ETTaX^etiy  7 d<ppo;r  aKoXoiTEi.  Of  what  kind  was  the  Greek  camp  ? 
63.  Had  they  any  settled  plan  for  sending  out  scouts  ? 

• 64.  What  naval  expedition  do  we  read  of  before  the  Trojan  war? 

Explain  the  following  epithets  of  ships:  i/iprj  Zi'o-ai,  ewtreX/ioi,  dpficXXuraai, 
yXarpvpai , KopuivtZz;,  TrovroTropm , KVavozpcjipoi,  piXroTrdppoi.s  What  became  of 
the  ships  during  the  siege?  How  many  men  did  each  ship  contain? 
What  was  for  a long  period  the  usual  vessel  of  war  ? (note  6.)  When 
were  triremes  first  built  ? (note  6 ) 65.  Give  the  terms  for  the  keel,  the 


4 To  embrace  the  knees,  i.  e.  falling  at  the  feet  as  a suppliant. 

5 ‘TJnmixed  libations;’  the  wine  used  in  compacts  being  unmixed 
with  water. 

6 A bird  appearing  on  the  right  hand,  which  was  considered  a fa- 
vourable omen. 

7 A body  of  troops  arranged  in  a solid  square. 

8 (. IpoToEn , bloody  : Pporoi,  blood,  gore. 

9 "Ei'cror,  l (tequalis ),  floating- evenly  ; ap<j>d\i<wo;  (cXtarrai,  volvo),  im- 
pelled onwards  on  both  sides;  double-oared ; yXmpvpdi,  excavated,  hol- 
low ; Kopaivii,  curved,  beaked;  itovtott 6pm,  sea  faring ; sea-traversing ; 
Kvardirpupoi,  dark-prowed,  black-beaked ; piXro-ndprios,  having  their  sides 
painted  with  vermilion. 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


175 


rudder,  the  deck,  the  thwarts  or  rowers’  benches,  the  oar,  the  prow,  the 
stem,  the  mast,  the  stays,  the  sail ; the  various  terms  for  ropes.  Does 
Homer  describe  any  sea-fight?  Explain  £ vara  vavpaya,  tyopriScs  ehpeTai. 

66.  What  was  the  most  universal  source  of  wealth  in  the  heroic  age  ? 
What  are  rich  men  called  ? What  was  also  an  important  pursuit  ? 
What  animals  were  used  for  ploughing  ? What  other  pursuits  do  we 
read  of?  67.  How  do  we  see  the  wives  and  daughters  of  kings  engaged  ? 
Give  instances.  Who  performed  the  harder  labour  ? Explain  the  Ho- 
meric use  of  doSpanodor  and  depanwv  (note  7).  Does  Homer  ever  use  SjvXos 
or  SovXtj  ? (note  7.)  Explain  dpre;,  -apiij.  68.  What  were  the  amuse- 
ments of  the  heroic  age  ? What  sports  were  practised  at  the  funeral  of 
Patroclus? 

69.  Were  the  Greeks  early  acquainted  with  many  of  the  useful  and 
elegant  arts?  Explain  Stiyioepyos.  70.  What  arts  are  mentioned  in  Ho- 
mer ? Explain  ^aA*df,  oihnpos,  %pva6s,  apyvpos,  KcKTaircpos,  r/XEKrpos  or 
nXcKTpov.  71.  With  whom  was  trade  carried  on  at  an  early  period? 
What  weights  are  mentioned  ? Is  coined  money  mentioned  ? What 
was  the  measure  of  value?  Explain  bcarfy/Joioj,  iweaPoios.  Who  traded 
with  the  Greeks  during  the  siege  of  Troy  ? 

72.  What  was  the  life  of  the  Grecian  women  in  the  Heroic  age  ? 
Mention  some  patterns  of  virtuous  wives.  What  was  the  lawful  wife 
called?  What  were  the  children  born  in  wedlock  termed?  73.  How 
was  marriage  contracted?  In  what  did  the  form  consist?  Did  parents 
ever  present  gifts  to  their  daughter?  Were  children  considered  a bless- 
ing ? What  may  we  learn  from  the  stories  of  Meleager  and  GSdipus  ? 
Explain  ^owo-rai'.  74.  In  what  did  Peleus  cause  Achilles  to  be  instructed  ? 
By  whom? 

75.  Describe  the  food  of  the  Homeric  age.  Explain  ofov  (of  a)  in  the 
Homeric:  at  a later  age.  With  what  did  the  Homeric  feasts  usually 
conclude?  What  was  the  usual  drink?  Explain  kvkiwv.  What  were 
their  usual  meals?  76.  What  was  given  to  the  guests  before  eating? 
What  distinction  did  the  most  honoured  guest  receive?  Who  distributed 
the  wine  ? Explain  din a;,  hvtteWov,  Senas  dpipuh-rTEWov , dXucov,  PKxnpos, 
kigQvBlov.  What  musical  instruments  do  we  meet  with?  (note  5.) 

77.  Describe  the  usual  clothing  of  the  men?  Explain  the  epithets, 
Xap-a pos,  ivwriTos,  aiyaXdeis,  vp yareo;.1  What  did  they  wear  when  they 
went  out  ? Explain  the  epithets  of  the  cloak,  ivcpooKc-Kfis,  dAcfd vcyos,  ovXri, 
<pimiiK6eoaa,  forAij,  «ra<5ii).2  How  was  the  hair  worn  ? Explain  *■  aprjKopo- 
<3‘ ’res  'Ayaioi.  Explain  the  epithets  imXoKapos,  (avG6;.  How  were  their 
feet  protected ? 78.  What  did  the  women  wear?  How  were  their 

clothes  bound  together  and  fastened  ? What  were  their  head-dresses  ? 
Explain  eppara,  rplyhpva , popotvra3  a ppm  2A  ikes. 

79.  What  were  the  residences  of  men  of  rank  called  ? Has  this 

1 AapxpSs,  shining,  bright;  eovvoto;,  well-spun  or  beautifully  woven; 
myaX6ets  (related  to  ala Aoj  ; pinguis,  then  nitidus),  bright,  hence  mag- 
nificent, & c. ; vaya-tos,  newly  wrought  fcos,  yaw). 

2 ’ Auepoaxc-ns  and  dXcfdvepo;,  guarding  off  the  wind;  oh Ai?,  shaggy, 
woolly;  fuviKdeaaa,  purple  ; iorAi),  double;  UrnSiij,  wide,  ample. 

3 TpiyXnoa,  having  three  eyes  or  openings ; al.  having  three  stars, 
“ triple-gemmed,' ’ Cowper  ; popdevra,  carefully  wrought. 


176 


(QUESTIONS  TO 


word  any  other  meaning  ? Give  a general  notion  of  the  houses  of  per- 
sons of  rank.  Explain  roT^or,  epKos,  epsiov , rniiat,  Ovpai  6ik\'i6is,  av\ri9 
a'iOiivaa,  7rp6dopo;.  What  was  the  front  room  called  ? 80.  What  were  the 

side  apartments  called?  Where  did  Penelope  live  in  the  palace  of  Ulys- 
ses? Whose  houses  are  spoken  of  as  large  and  handsome  ? 

81.  Give  the  Greek  for  raised  seats,  footstool,  cushions,  seats  or 
benches,  chairs,  tables,  beds,  bed-covers,  sheets.  What  were  often  give» 
as  rewards  for  victory,  or  presents  ? Were  baths  used  ? Explain  daipciiOo s. 

SPARTA. 

82.  Give  the  general  character  of  Laconia.  How  is  it  divided  fron 
north  to  south?  Explain  not Aij  AowJuipui'.  What  stream  waters  the 
valley  of  Laconia  ? Where  do  the  eastern  and  western  mountain  chains 
terminate  ? Are  there  any  valleys  in  Laconia  besides  that  of  the 
Eurotas  ? 

83.  What  was  the  capital?  How  situated?  Mention  some  of  the 

public  buildings  of  Sparta.  What  were  the  principal  open  places  ? What 
was  the  largest  temple  ? 84.  How  was  Lacedaemon  divided  ? What 

Lacedaemonian  <pv\ai  are  known  to  us? 

85.  Who  were  the  most  ancient  inhabitants  of  Laconia?  At  the  pe- 
riod of  the  Trojan  war,  who  are  mentioned  as  the  most  powerful  people  ? 
What  family  was  then  the  most  powerful?  Did  any  or  all  of  Messenia 
belong  to  the  Atridae  ? 86.  Who  invaded  the  Peloponnesus  after  the 

Trojan  war  ? How  long  after  ? Who  assisted  these  invaders  ? 87.  How 

was  the  empire  of  the  Atridaj  divided  among  the  Heracleid  leaders  ? 
What  was  their  success?  Explain  Periaeci  and  Heloles. 

88.  What  is  the  amount  of  our  knowledge  about  the  Lacedaemonian 
commonwealth  during  the  times  immediately  after  the  Doric  immigra- 
tion? When  did  Lycurgus  re-establish  order  ? Was  his  constitution 
entirely  new?  What  was  the  main  principle  of  the  constitution  of  Ly- 
curgus ? What  influence  was  to  be  carefully  excluded  ? 

89.  How  was  the  warlike  spirit,  developed  by  this  constitution,  first 
displayed  ? How  far  did  the  Spartans  gradually  extend  their  influence  ? 
To  what  political  principle  or  party  did  they  always  afford  protection? 
Explain  Hegemony.  90.  How  far  did  the  Spartan  Hegemony  extend 
itself  after  the  Persian  war?  Who  was  its  powerful  opponent?  When 
did  Sparta  defeat  Athens?  Did  she  retain  the  fruits  of  her  victory? 
What  enabled  Athens  and  Thebes  again  to  oppose  her  with  success  ? 

91.  What  important  alteration  was  made  in  the  constitution  of  Ly- 
curgus ? When  ? What  magistrates  became  more  powerful  at  Sparta 
than  the  kings  themselves?  Explain  the  weakness  of  the  constitution  of 
Lycurgus.  92.  What  followed  the  national  increase  of  power  and 
wealth  ? How  did  it  happen  that  the  constitution  degenerated  into  ar 
oppressive  oligarchy  ? 

93.  Who  attempted  to  restore  the  ancient  order  of  things?  Wha' 
means  did  he  adopt?  and  with  what  success?  What  measures  did 
Cleomenes  III.  carry?  Who  eventually  overthrew  his  projects?  Wh‘ 
at  length  interfered,  and  made  themselves  masters  of  the  Peloponnesuc 
How  was  Sparta  treated  by  the  conquerors?  How  long  did  the  institu 
tions  of  Lycurgus  retain  some  portion  of  their  form  ? 

94.  How  were  the  inhabitants  of  Laconia  divided  ? How  were  th 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


177 


free  inhabitants  of  Laconia  divided  ? Who  were  the  sole  possessors  of 
full  political  rights?  Explain  the  term  opoioi.  95.  Name  the  Spartan 
tribes.  What  does  the  division  of  the  Spartans  into  three  tribes  probably 
indicate  ? How  were  the  three  principal  tribes  divided  ? When  did  ad- 
mission to  the  rights  of  Spartan  citizenship  become  comparatively  com- 
mon ? What  class  increased  regularly  from  the  time  of  the  Peloponne- 
sian war? 

96.  Explain  Perireci  (ncotoiKoi).  What  was  for  the  most  part  their 
origin?  Explain  their  political  condition.  With  what  body  of  which  we 
read  in  Roman  History  would  you  compare  them  ? After  the  conquest 
of  Messenia  how  many  cities  were  inhabited  by  the  Perioeci  ? In  what 
occupations  did  they  employ  themselves  ? 97.  Who  were  the  Mothaces  ? 

Distinguish  poBurc t from  poBiore;.  Were  the  Mothaces  considered  as 
citizens?  Who  were  called  Nothi?  How  might  these  become  citizens  ? 
98.  Who  were  the  Neodamodes  ? Of  what  class  did  the  armies  of  Sparta 
consist  in  a great  measure  in  later  times? 

99.  Who  were  the  Spartan  bondsmen  ? If  a Helot  belonged  to  an 
allotment,  how  was  the  owner’s  right  over  him  limited  ? 100.  What  was 

their  number  in  the  prosperous  days  of  the  commonwealth  ? What 
were  their  occupations  in  time  of  peace  ? in  war  ? In  later  times  how 
were  they  especially  employed  ? 

101 .  What  was  the  general  condition  of  the  Helots?  Explain  upv-urda. 

102.  What  was  probably  the  object  of  this  practice,  at  its  original  insti- 
tution ? When  was  a large  body  of  Helots  made  away  with  ? how 
many  were  so  removed  ? Were  Helots  ever  emancipated  ? 

103.  Was  there  originally  any  essential  distinction,  as  regarded  privi- 
leges, property,  &c.,  between  the  citizens  of  Lacedaemon?  When  did 
different  divisions  of  property  take  place  ? How  many  s\Spoi  were  as- 
signed to  the  Perioeci?  how  many  to  the  Spartiates?  104.  What  effect 
was  produced  by  the  regulation  that  the  /cXopoi  could  neither  be  divided 
nor  alienated?  What  means  were  devised  to  remove  this  inequality? 
When  were  such  measures  especially  discovered  to  be  inadequate  ? 105. 

How  was  the  inequality  ye.,  farther  increased  ? To  what  degree  was  the 
number  of  citizens  diminished,  and  the  inequality  of  property  increased, 
in  the  time  of  Agis  III.  ? 

106.  What  did  this  inequality  of  property  at  last  produce  ? Explain 
the  difference  between  the  opoioi  and  the  vrrofu.invcs. 

107.  How  had  the  kingly  authority  been  originally  divided  ? What 
led  to  the  constitution  introduced  by  Lycurgus  ? On  what  was  it  founded  ? 
Explain  the  term  j>r,Tpai.  To  what  did  the  pfjrpai  of  Lycurgus  seem  to 
have  reference?  108.  How  was  the  authority  divided  between  the  Sen- 
ate, the  Assembly  of  the  people,  and  the  Magistrates?  109.  In  what 
point  of  view  may  the  constitution  of  Sparta  be  called  democratic  ? in 
what  aristocratic,  and,  in  its  later  stages,  oligarchical? 

110.  Of  whom  did  the  Senate  (ycpowia,  Lac.  ycpaaia)  consist?  How 
were  the  members  of  the  Council  or  Senate  chosen?  What  qualifica- 
tions were  necessary?  What  magistrates  gradually  usurped  the  right  ol 
sharing  the  deliberations  and  presiding  at  the  meetings  of  the  Senate? 

111.  What  was  the  business  of  the  Senate?  What  was  believed  to  be  a 
security  for  the  conservative  tendency  of  the  Senate  ? 

1 12.  Did  the  popular  Assembly  meet  at  stated  periods  and  on  a par- 
ticular spot?  What  rights  did  it  possess?  113.  What  was  the  people’s 


178 


QUESTIONS  TO 


share  in  these  discussions  ? What  power  did  they  not  possess  ? Prove 
how  limited  their  authority  was.  114.  What  power  does  the  government 
seem  to  have  possessed  ? Did  the  Assembly  possess  any  judicial  powers  ? 
What  was  the  regular  mode  of  expressing  their  opinion?  Who  and  on 
what  conditions  were  entitled  to  be  present  at  the  Assembly  ? 

115.  Were  the  Lacedaemonian  Kings  a distinct  power  in  the  state? 
What  were  the  two  royal  families?  Describe  the  law  of  succession. 
What  was  done  if  the  King  were  a minor?  116.  Describe  the  power  of 
the  Kings.  117.  Did  either,  or  both,  or  one  command  the  army  in  time 
of  war  ? Was  the  command  ever  intrusted  to  other  individuals?  When 
the  war  was  ended,  might  they  be  called  to  account?  What  oath  were 
they  required  to  take  every  month?  By  what  power  was  their  authority 
in  time  of  war  gradually  circumscribed  ? 118.  What  state  provision  did 

the  Ephori  receive  for  their  maintenance?  What  prerogatives  did  they 
enjoy  ? 

119.  From  what  time  did  the  office  of  the  Ephori  gradually  raise 
itself  to  the  highest  authority?  From  what  did  its  political  importance 
and  popularity  mainly  result  ? How  were  the  Ephori  chosen  ? 120.  De- 

scribe the  extent  of  their  authority  and  privileges  as  fully  developed. 
121  Describe  their  monthly  oath.  What  remarkable  power  did  they 
possess  against  the  Kings  ? Describe  the  ovcvraXi/.4  What  favoured  their 
constant  endeavours  to  weaken  the  monarchy  ? 

122.  What  offices  did  the  following  magistrates  hold : the  rratiovSpos, 

Pideoi  (di'dtm),  ap/i6avvoij  cp-ncXcopoi,  ttvQioi,  npufavot,  appoorai  ? 

123.  What  place,  in  theory  and  practice,  did  the  state,  occupy  in  the 

Spartan  constitution  ? 124.  What  was  the  final  effect  when  the  chains 

of  ancient  belief  and  custom  were  once  broken  ? 

125.  Where  was  the  judicial  authority  placed  ? Who  judged  capital 
offences?  who  private  disputes?  126.  What  questions  belonged  to  the 
Kings?  By  whom  were  offences  committed  by  the  Kings  judged  ? 

127.  What  were  the  usual  punishments?  On  whom  was  dripta  in- 
flicted ? What  were  the  capital  punishments  ? 

128.  What  gods  were  the  most  highly  honoured  at  Sparta  ? What 
priesthood  did  the  Kings  hold  ? What  oracle  did  the  Spartans  especially 
honour  ? 

129.  What  were  the  principal  national  festivals  ? 

130.  Who  formed  the  main  strength  of  the  Spartan  army?  131. 
Describe  the  equipment  of  the  Spartan  Hoplites.  How  soon  were  Helots 
employed  as  heavy -armed  soldiers  with  a promise  of  emancipation?  Of 
whom  did  armies  on  foreign  service  principally  consist  in  later  times? 
When  were  mercenary  troops  employed  ? 

132.  In  what  did  the  efficiency  of  the  Spartan  army  principally  con- 
list  ? How  was  the  whole  force  divided  ? How  strong  was  the  Enorno- 
da  ? 133.  Was  the  cavalry  a strong  body?  how  was  it  divided?  Of 


4 It  was  a staff  of  a particular  size  ? The  Ephori  wound  round  this 
s cytale  strips  of  the  material  they  intended  to  write  on.  Having  written 
what  they  wished,  they  unwound  it,  and  sent  it  to  the  King  or  other 
Commander-in-chief,  who  wound  it  round  the  counterpart  of  their  scy- 
tale  ; by  which  operation,  the  parts  being  brought  together  as  before,  it 
became  legible  to  him. 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


179 


what  two  distinguished  corps  of  cavalry  do  we  read?  Of  whom  did  the 
Imeis  consist ? Who  were  the  dyudocpyoi  ? Of  whom  did  the  light-armed 
companies  consist?  How  many  Helots  attended  each  Spartan  (Sparti- 
ate)  ? 

134.  Who  at  first  commanded  the  armies  ? Who  formed  their  coun- 
cil of  war  ? Mention  some  Spartan  commanders-in-chief  who  were  not 
Kings.  Who  were  the  remaining  officers. 

135.  How  did  the  campaign  commence  ? What  was  done  if  the 

Dia-bateria  were  unfavourable  ? What  effect  had  the  Carneian  festival  on 
a campaign?  What  were  always  continued  in  camp?  Who  were  ex- 
cluded from  the  camp  ? 136.  Describe  the  arrangement  of  an  army  in 

battle  array.  Describe  the  sacrifices,  martial  music,  &c.,  which  preceded 
the  onslaught.  How  did  the  army  advance  ? What  scientific  ma- 
noeuvres and  evolutions  were  sometimes  employed  ? 137.  What  was  not 

customary  ? Of  what  military  operations  did  the  Spartans  know  nothing  ? 
How  were  those  who  had  most  distinguished  themselves  by  their  bravery 
rewarded  ? Who  received  especial  honours  ? How  were  cowards  pun- 
ished ? 

138.  To  what  was  Sparta  indebted,  during  the  Persian  war,  for  the 
Hegemony  by  sea  ? When  did  she  first  figure  as  a naval  power  ? Who 
often  manned  the  fleet  ? What  character  did  the  Spartans  try  to  give  to 
their  naval  engagements  ? 

139.  How  was  the  expenditure  of  the  Spartan  government  defrayed  ? 
Was  it  large?  140.  What  did  Lycurgus  prohibit?  With  what  limita- 
tion must  the  statement  that  Lycurgus  permitted  only  iron  money  be 
understood?  Explain  -ntXavop.  Show  that  the  privilege  of  possessing  the 
precious  metals  extended  at  length  to  the  Kings  and  Commanders-in- 
Chief. 

141.  Give  instances  in  which  the  Spartan  government  interfered  in 
matters  which  are  generally  left  to  each  man's  discretion. 

142.  What  was,  nationally  considered,  the  object  of  marriage  ? How 
did  the  state  encourage  marriage?  On  what  was  a penalty  imposed  ? 

143.  What  did  the  marriage  solemnity  resemble  ? Describe  the  regula- 
tions with  respect  (1)  to  dowry,  (2)  to  the  estate  of  an  heiress.  Who 
decided  questions  about  the  marriage  of  heiresses  ? How  was  the  mar- 
ried state  looked  upon  at  Sparta  ? 

144.  What  was  the  great  aim  of  the  government  in  its  measures  of 
education  ? Whose  property  were  children,  especially  boys,  considered  ? 
What  was  done  as  soon  as  they  were  born?  When  did  the  state  under- 
take their  education  1 145.  Describe  the  divisions  of  the  Spartan  youth, 

their  teachers,  &c.  When  did  they  become  pcWeipevcs  ? When  uptves 
(JLptves  ?)  e^aipeTs,  di 'ipss  2 What  educational  authority  did  every  citizen 
of  full  age  possess  ? 

146.  How  might  the  boys  improve  their  spare  diet  ? What  if  they 
were  detected  in  this  attempt  ? 147.  Describe  their  dress,  their  beds, 

their  exercises.  Mention  a singular  method  of  hardening  them? 

148.  Was  the  Spartan  education  favourable  to  a free  expansion  of  the 
understanding?  What  arts,  &c  , were  always  viewed  by  the  Spartans 
with  distrust  1 To  what  was  their  intellectual  training  restricted  ? 149. 

In  what  harmony  were  their  national  songs  composed  ? When  were  the 
boys  accustomed  to  listen  to  the  grave  conversation  of  their  elders  1 
What  was  always  strictly  enforced  ? 


180 


QUESTIONS  TO 


150.  Describe  the  education  of  Spartan  girls.  Did  the  Spartan  wo- 
men enjoy  greater  or  less  "freedom  than  the  Ionian  ? 

151.  When  did  the  Spartan  youth  obtain  the  freedom  of  men! 

What  had  been  their  condition  hitherto,  even  though  they  were  married  ! 
In  what  particulars  was  the  feeling  of  dependence  on  the  state  retained! 

152.  At  their  meals  what  wa3  the  principal  dish  ? What  additions  were 
sometimes  made  to  the  entertainment?  What  was  done  in  after  times, 
when  discipline  was  relaxed  ? 153.  How  much  was  each  member  bound 

to  contribute  to  his  mess?  To  what  did  neglect  of  this  regulation  sub- 
ject the  offender  ? How  were  new  members  admitted  to  a syssitia  ? 
How  many  generally  sat  together  ? In  what  other  respect  were  they 
comrades  ? Explain  the  term  ‘ laconic  answer.’ 

154.  What  besides  the  diet  was  required  by  the  law  to  be  exceedingly 
simple  ? What  was  their  dress  ? What  did  the  Spartan  generally  carry  ! 
What  was  the  dress  of  the  women  ? 155.  By  what  was  intercourse  with 

foreigners  rendered  difficult  ? Explain  fei/r/Xairia. 

156,  157.  Describe  the  relaxation  of  discipline.  At  the  period  of  the 
Peloponnesian  war,  what  was  the  state  of  Sparta  as  to  morals,  the  num- 
ber of  its  citizens,  &e.  ? By  what  was  Sparta  doomed  to  fall  ? 

CRETE. 

158.  Mention  some  other  Doric  states,  whose  institutions,  &c.  were 
stamped  with  a Doric  character.  By  whom  and  when  was  Crete  colo- 
nized ? 159.  From  whom  does  tradition  derive  the  ancient  laws  and 

constitution  of  the  island  ? Was  Crete  one  state  ? Explain  the  Homeric 
epithet  of  the  Cretans  roi^aiKcs. 

160.  Describe  the  Cretan  constitution.  Did  all  Cretans  enjoy  the  full 
rights  of  citizenship?  Explain  pvuirai,  itXapurai,  atfiappionai.  161.  In 
whom  was  the  government  vested  ? Who  commanded  the  army,  and 
presided  in  the  Senate  and  Assembly  ? 

162.  What  was  the  discipline  and  mode  of  life  of  the  Cretans? 
When  did  education  begin,  and  in  what  did  it  chiefly  consist  ? Men- 
tion some  other  points  of  resemblance  between  the  customs,  &c.  of  Sparta 
and  Crete.  What  change  did  the  constitution  undergo?  With  what 
final  result  ? 


ATHENS. 

163.  What  is  the  general  character  of  Attica?  Describe  the  situation 
and  boundaries.  How  is  Attica  divided  ? Explain  h m6ias,  dvrij,  n *apa- 
\ia.  164.  Was  the  soil  of  Attica  fertile  ? What  were  its  productions 
(agricultural,  mineral,  &c.)  ? What  its  climate?  165.  For  what  pur- 
suits was  it  well  adapted  ? What  islands  belonged  to  it  ? What  were 
the  political  divisions  of  Attica  ? What  district  belonged  in  ancient  time 
to  Attica  ? 

166.  Describe  the  situation  of  Athens.  Mention  its  traditional  found- 
ers. When  was  it  rebuilt  ? Who  adorned  it  ? 167.  Describe  its  divi- 

sions. What  were  the  most  remarkable  buildings  of  the  lower  city  ? 
What  open  space  was  there  in  the  lower  city  ? 168.  How  was  the  upper 

city  protected  ? Describe  the  Propyltea.  What  were  the  principal  build- 
ings of  the  upper  city?  169.  What  were  the  quarters  of  the  city? 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


181 


Who  surrounded  the  city  by  a wall  ? Of  what  extent  ? Mention  some 
of  the  gates.  170.  What  were  the  harbours?  What  handsome  build- 
ings were  there  in  the  Port  ? How  were  these  harbours  joined  to 
Athens  ? Who  fortified  the  Piraeus  1 By  whom  were  the  connecting 
walls  completed  ? By  whom  were  the  Long  Walls  and  the  wall  of  the 
Pirseeus  pulled  down  1 by  whom  restored  ? 171.  What  celebrated  Gym- 

nasia were  close  by  Athens  ? What  Gymnasium  was  at  some  distance 
from  the  city  2 

1 72.  Of  what  origin  were  the  most  ancient  inhabitants  of  Attica  1 
W'ho  was  Cecrops,  according  (1)  to  the  less,  (2)  to  the  more  probable 
tradition  ? With  what  does  tradition  connect  Erectheus  ? Give  the 
legend  of  Xuthus.  173.  What  does  this  tradition  indicate  ? What  were 
the  inhabitants  of  Attica  universally  believed  to  be  ? (note  5.)  What 
does  the  legend  ascribe  to  Ion  ? Explain  the  probable  meaning  of  TiAto- 
vrcs  (or  TrXIot'rej),  "O jr\r}r£$,  ’A pydSeis,  A-iyiKopsts.  What  indications 
exist  of  an  ancient  division  into  castes?  (note  6.) 

174.  What  is  ascribed  to  Theseus?  Describe  (1)  the  executive 
power,  (2)  the  constitution.  175.  What  people  took  refuge  in  Attica  ? 
When?  What  caused  an  emigration  to  Asia  ? 176.  What  increased 

during  these  disturbances  ? What  changes  took  place  in  the  sovereign 
power  ? 

177.  Describe  the  legislation  of  Draco,  with  its  dates,  causes,  and 
character.  When  was  Solon  appointed  to  the  archonship  ? 

178.  What  was  Solon’s  first  step  towards  lightening  the  public  bur- 

dens? Describe  Solon’s  division  of  the  people  into  classes.  On  what 
was  this  division  grounded  ? What  were  the  exemptions  and  what  the 
diminished  privileges  of  the  fourth  class?  179.  What  offices  were  open 
to  the  first  three  classes  ? what  only  to  the  first  ? What  right  did  all  the 
citizens  enjoy  ? Who  brou<^it  the  proposed  measures  before  the  Assem- 
bly of  the  people  ? 180.  From  whom  were  the  judges  (or  jurors)  chosen  ? 

With  what  was  the  college  of  the  Areopagites  charged  ? 

181.  What  was  the  result  of  the  disputes  that  followed  the  death  of 
Solon  ? When  was  the  tyranny  of  Pisistratus  suppressed  ? What  fol- 
lowed its  suppression  ? What  fresh  division  of  the  people  was  made  ? 

182.  When  did  the  people  become  possessed  of  an  overwhelming  prepon- 
derance ? Account  for  this.  How  early  were  the  magistrates  elected  by 
lot  ? By  what  abolition  was  the  power  of  the  democracy  enormously 
increased  ? 

183.  Mention  some  corrupting  causes  that  affected  the  character  of 
the  Athenian  people.  To  what  monstrous  notion  did  the  doctrine  that 
all  men  are  eligible  to  offices  of  state  give  birth?  What  was  the  dcapi- 
kov  ? What  injurious  practice  was  introduced?  What  office  fell  into 
contempt  ? 184.  Who  was  the  author  of  many  of  these  changes  ? What 
was  the  effect  for  a time  of  his  personal  influence  ? How  were  rich  citi- 
zens annoyed  ? How  were  the  allies  ruined  ? Who  had  used  the  power 
of  influencing  the  people  well?  who  abused  it? 

186.  Dale  the  end  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  When  were  the  more 
aristocratic  features  of  the  government  restored  ? Name  these  features. 
Did  the  restoration  last?  Who  introduced  an  oligarchical  form  of  gov- 
ernment? When?  Describe  it.  Who  deposed  the  ‘thirty  tyrants ?’ 
187.  When  was  the  democratic  constitution  re-established  ? Was  the 
democracy  less  or  more  corrupt  after  the  deposition  of  the  thirty  tyrants  ? 
Date  the  battles  of  Chteronea  and  Cranon  (or  Crannon). 


i 82 


QUESTIONS  TO 


188.  How  were  the  inhabitants  of  Attica  divided  ? How  were  the 
free  citizens  divided  ? Who  according  to  the  law  of  Solon  was  entitled 
to  full  political  rights  (jraXtrela)  ? How  did  Pericles  modify  this  law  ? 
When  does  it  seem  to  have  been  disregarded  ? 189.  When  did  a youth’s 

legal  majority  commence?  By  what  ceremonies  was  its  commencement 
marked  ! 190.  Explain  the  term  rrcpim\os.  When  were  the  higher 

offices  of  the  state  open  to  him?  Who  only  could  exercise  full  political 
rights  ? Explain  CTiVi/ioi,  art/ioi.  Did  Alimia  admit  of  degrees  ? 

191,  192.  What  was  the  constitution  with  reference  to  foreigners? 
By  whom  and  how  could  the  freedom  of  the  city  be  granted  ? Could  a 
decree  conferring  citizenship  be  set  aside  ? From  what  were  the  Snyominroi. 
excluded  ? Explain  the  terms  inyoirotriroi,  or  nWijroi.  When  was  the 
freedom  of  the  city  but  seldom  bestowed  ? Was  it  ever  bestowed  more 
frequently?  Who  were  made  citizens  after  the  destruction  of  Plattea1 
who  towards  the  close  of  the  Peloponnesian  war? 

193.  Explain  <jn Xojcrta.*  What  were  aliens  or  resident  foreigners 
called  ? Was  their  number  considerable  ? What  were  they  not  allowed 
to  do?  What  attempt  subjected  them  to  enslavement?  What  yearly 
tribute  was  exacted  from  them  ? In  what  respect  were  they  as  free  as 
the  native  citizens?  194.  What  were  required  from  them  no  less  than 
from  the  Athenians  ? What  actions  that  marked  inferiority  were  they 
obliged  to  perform  at  certain  festivals  ? From  whom  alone  could  any  re- 
lief from  their  disabilities  be  obtained  ? Who  were  the  icoreXtlf  1 

195.  Had  Attica  any  bondsmen  like  the  Helots?  Plow  did  the  Athe- 
nians procure  their  slaves?  How  were  the  public  slaves  employed? 
Who  were  the  Scythians  or  to£otou  ? 196,  197.  What  was  the  general 

condition  of  these  slaves  ? Might  slaves  possess  property  ? What  securi- 
ties had  they  against  extreme  severity?  What  alleviations  did  they  pos- 
sess ? What  institutions  were  they  never  allowed  to  visit  ? Might  they 
appear  as  witnesses  ? How  must  their  evidence  be  obtained  ? 198.  What 

was  the  condition  and  name  of  emancipated  slaves?  Might  emancipated 
slaves  be  again  condemned  to  slavery?  What  was  the  population  of  At- 
tica in  her  best  days  ? 

199,  200.  What  alteration  did  Clisthenes  introduce  into  the  Attic 
tribes?  Name  the  tribes.  Into  how  many  demi  were  they  probably  di- 
vided? Were  the  Demi  which  belonged  to  each  Phyle  necessarily 
adjoining  districts?  In  what  register  was  the  son’s  name  always  in- 
scribed ? 

201,202.  What  did  each  Phyle  possess  ? What  was  transacted  in 
the  public  assemblies  of  the  Phyle  ? What  did  even  the  Demi  possess  ? 
When  were  youths  enrolled  in  the  register  of  their  father’s  Demus?  Ex- 
plain ypanyaTcXov.  Were  adopted  sons  enrolled  in  this? 

Were  names  ever  expunged  from  the  list  of  Demotte? 

203.  What  and  how  old  was  the  division  into  Phratrire  and  Gene  ? 
How  many  phratria.  were  there  ? How  many  yivn  did  each  phrdtria  (or 
ward)  contain?  Were  the  Snymoiriroi  admitted  into  any  ward  or  fami- 
ly? Say  whether  this  occurred  always;  usually;  ever.  What  was  the 
effect  of  this  admission  or  non-admission  ? 204.  When  were  the  names 


6 The  comparative  readiness  of  the  Athenians  to  admit  strangers  to 
citizenship,  to  afford  them  legal  protection,  &c. 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


183 


of  new-born  children  enrolled  in  the  register  of  the  Phratria  ? What 
was  one  of  the  family  duties  of  the  Phratores?  Who  managed  the  af- 
fairs of  the  Phratria?  205.  How  was  a yei/os  subdivided?  On  what 
grounds  were  the  Phratrias  and  Gene  upheld  as  much  as  possible  ? What 
did  they  possess?  At  what  worship  could  none  but  the  members  of 
the  Phratrite  and  Gene  assist  ? 

206.  Explain  rpiTrves,  ravxpaptai.  What  had  these  divisions  refer- 
ence to  ? 

207.  What  were  iKK^rjviai  v6pipoi , evvopoi,  xtipiai  ? What  were  ixx'XricTiai 

ovyK^r/roi  or  *r<ird>tAi)Toi  ? 208.  At  the  ordinary  meetings  where  did  the 

people  in  ancient  times  assemble  ? What  assemblies  were  still  held  on 
the  Pnyx?  Who  regularly  summoned  the  Assembly?  IIow  were  the 
people  called  together  on  the  day  of  meeting  ? 209.  What  were  the  du- 

ties of  the  Lexiarchs?  What  did  those  who  attended  receive  ? Might 
absentees  be  punished  ? Explain  xavoi  xai  Karo*  T 6 o^oiplov  tptvyovoi  to 
pepiXroiplvov.^ 

210.  How  was  the  meeting  opened  ? Who  introduced  the  subject  to 
be  discussed  ? If  the  deliberation  of  the  Senate  were  not  required,  how 
was  the  matter  proceeded  with?  How  was  the  approbation  of  the  peo- 
ple expressed?  If  the  matter  required  debate,  who  were  invited  to  de- 
liver their  opinions?--  Was  this  practice  always  observed?  (note  3.) 
211.  What  rules  were  made  to  secure  and  restrain  liberty  of  speech? 
What  was  done  to  those  who  transgressed  these  rules  ? Who  assisted  the 
Proedri  in  maintaining  order?  212.  What  right  does  each  of  the  Proedri 
seem  to  have  possessed  ? On  what  condition  might  private  individuals 
interfere,  even  after  the  proposal  had  been  gone  through  ? 

213.  What  was  the  usual  manner  of  voting  ? What  other  mode  was 
sometimes  employed?  when?  When  the  vote  was  by  \pii<poi,  how  many 
votes  were  necessary  to  carry  the  question  ? What  was  done  after  the 
votes  were  taken ? Was  a meeting  ever  adjourned  to  the  next  day? 
when  ? 

214.  What  subjects  were  decided  in  these  assemblies  ? To  whom  did 
ambassadors  both  from  and  to  Athens  submit  their  reports  ? 

215.  How  was  the  legislative  authority  of  the  Ecclesia  circumscribed 
in  ancient  times?  What  was  done  at  the  first  assembly  in  each  year? 
If  any  change  in  the  laws  was  thought  advisable,  what  was  next  re- 
quired? Explain  trwfiyopot,  aivStxoi.  Explain  the  formation,  sittings, 
and  functions  of  the  legislative  committee  (ro/ioBerai).  216.  Was  the 
decision  of  this  committee  absolutely  final  ? If  not,  how  might  it  be  con- 
tested? What  power  did  the  assembly  possess  when  a ypatpn  Trapurdpup 
was  before  it?  Eplain  on^EiporoWa.  Were  laws  ever  passed  by  the  peo- 
ple without  the  intervention  of  the  Nomothetae  ? What  rule  provided  for 
the  consistency  of  the  legal  code  ? 

217.  What  blind  democratic  principle  was  introduced  into  the  manner 
of  electing  officers  of  state  ? What  exceptions  were  there  ? What  were 
the  meetings  for  the  purpose  of  electing  magistrates  termed  ? Explain 
apxa ‘petrni^cir,  a-noviap^iav.  After  their  entry  on  office  could  magistrates 


a The  rotyrat  were  furnished  with  a rope  dyed  with  vermilion,  with 
which  they  scoured  the  streets,  to  drive  the  people  into  the  Assembly,  and 
mark  those  who  refused  to  go. 


184 


QUESTIONS  TO 


&c.  be  removed  for  misconduct  ? What  was  done  with  reference  to  the 
removal  of  officers  ? 

219.  What  was  the  judicial  authority  of  the  Assembly?  On  what 
were  the  proceedings  in  such  cases  founded  ? Explain  yiji/wij,  zlaayytXia. 
Were  cases  of  this  description  ever  brought  before  any  other  body  ? If 
so,  state  what  that  body  was,  and  what  its  powers.  What  step  did  they 
then  take  ? To  whom  did  the  people  generally  refer  the  cause  ? Explain 
TpoffoXai. 

220.  In  what  states  besides  Athens  did  Ostracism  exist?  Was  the 
Ostracism  a punishment  for  offences  committed  ? Describe  the  manner 
of  pronouncing  a sentence  of  Ostracism.  22 1.  What  were  persons  con- 
demned by  the  Ostracism  required  to  do?  How  far  was  the  time  of  ab- 
sence afterwards  restricted  ? Might  they  be  recalled  before  the  expiration 
of  that  time?  Who  possessed  the  exclusive  right  of  remitting  punish- 
ments? Was  any  disgrace  attached  to  the  Ostracism?  Was  any  injury 
done  to  the  house  or  property  of  the  banished  man  ? Who  obtained  the 
abolition  of  the  Ostracism  ? when  ? 

222.  In  the  time  of  Solon,  of  how  many  did  the  Senate  consist? 
Who  increased  the  number?  How  much?  State  the  original  and  the 
altered  qualification.  How  and  how  often  were  the  Senators  elected  ? 
Might  the  same  members  be  re-elected  ? After  their  election  to  what 
were  they  required  to  submit?  223.  Explain  opens  0ovXcvtik6;.  Might 
they  be  expelled  (and  if  so,  by  whom?)  for  misconduct?  In  what  other 
respect  were  they  responsible  ? What  did  each  Senator  receive  daily  ? 
Describe  their  privileges.  What  badge  of  office  did  they  wear  ? When? 
If  they  discharged  their  duties  faithfully,  what  was  generally  awarded 
them  ? 

224.  Explain  -npoliovXticiv,  irpoffovXevpa.  State  the  general  duties  of 
the  ffovXq.  What  financial  arrangement  belonged  to  them  ? 225.  What 

military  or  naval  arrangement  ? What  judicial  authority  did  they  exer- 
cise ? What  amount  of  fine  might  they  inflict  ? How  long  were  the 
decisions  of  the  Senate  binding  ? 

226.  How  often  and  where  did  the  Senate  assemble  ? Were  their 
meetings  public  ? How  was  the  Senate  divided  for  working  purposes  ? 
Explain  ifvXn  npvravevowa.  Pry tany,  Prytdnes.  Explain  the  ambiguity 
of  the  term  7rpvTavzTov.  What  took  place  at  the  Prytaneum  ? 227.  Ex- 
plain the  term  £7rnrrdr^j.  What  were  the  duties  of  the  ETrnrrdraf  ? Ex- 
plain rrpdcSpoi,  and  npocApcioma.  228.  Explain  intiprift^civ.  Whose 
permission  was  required  before  the  question  could  be  put  to  vote  ? How 
long  did  a Prytany  last  in  ordinary  years?  How  long  in  leap  year? 
Explain  ypappaTtvs,  drTiypaiptvSt  eiatrfipia,  i^irripia.  With  What  did  the 
daily  sitting  commence  ? 

229,  230.  Distinguish  between  ap^opres  Ejri/izXrirai,  and  vnnpzrat.  How 
and  where  were  the  lip^ovres  and  iTripcXorai  chosen  ? Explain  ap^ivrzi 
K\rjoo)roi,  or  tirro  KVa/iov. 

231.  Explain  SoKipaota.  What  was  it  not  ? Who  might  become 
candidates  for  public  offices  ? 232.  When  did  all  property  qualifications 

cease?  Was  there  any  exception ? State  the  qualification  for  a com- 
mander-in-chief ; for  the  priesthood  ; for  the  archonship.  What  (accord- 
ing to  some)  was  the  qualification  as  to  age  ? Explain  d<pc\ds,  yo  aeairnpoi, 
ol  dTroSoKipiiaBlvTcs.  How  were  the  rejected  punished  ? 

233.  Were  all  magistrates  responsible  ? For  what  were  all  especially 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


185 


responsible?  Explain  the  number,  office,  mode  of  election,  &c.,  ef  the 
Xoynrrat,  of  the  cZBwoi.  What  do  some  suppose  with  respect  to  the  Lo- 
gistce  and  Euthyni  1 (note  8 ) What  steps  were  taken  against  those 
whose  accounts  were  not  satisfactory?  234.  In  this  court  how  were 
the  interests  of  the  state  represented  ? What  restriction  was  placed  on 
the  liberty  of  a citizen  until  his  accounts  were  passed  ? How  were  these 
accounts  published  ? Did  these  measures  secure  the  integrity  of  public 
men? 

235.  What  caused  the  power  of  the  Magistrates  to  be  more  and  more 
restricted  ? Mention  particulars  in  which  their  powers  were  curtailed. 
What  restriction  was  there  with  respect  to  holding  the  same  office  twice, 
or  two  different  offices  within  a certain  space  of  time  ? Could  they  im- 
pose fines?  If  so,  with  or  without  appeal?  From  what  were  they  pro- 
tected ? Of  what  magisterial  insignia  do  we  read  ? 

236.  Explain  ap^aiv,  ffacnXtvg,  noXepap^og,  Osc/ioOt-rat . To  what  was 

the  originally  great  authority  of  these  Archons  afterwards  reduced  ? 
What  judicial  authority  had  they  ? With  or  without  appeal  ? What  ac- 
tions came  under  their  cognizance  ? What  disputes  did  the  Polemarch 
decide?  In  what  questions  had  the  SamXevs  jurisdiction?  in  what  the 
Thesmothetae ? 237.  What  duties  devolved  on  the  Archons  as  a body? 

Which  of  the  Archons  had  assessors  (xapefyoi)l  Before  entering  on  the 
office,  what  oath  were  they  required  to  take  ? After  the  expiration  of 
their  year,  of  what  body  did  they  become  members? 

238.  Who  were  the  Eleven  (oi  trSexa)  ? what  their  functions?  Who 
had  the  right  of  inflicting  summary  punishment  ? Who,  how  many,  &c. 
were  the  iaTvvdpiH  ? What  were  their  duties  ? 239.  Who  were  the 

bZorroiut,  the  ZKiardrai  TtZv  vScltcop,  the  ayopavopoi,  aiTotyvXaKts,  perpopopot, 
cmpe-Xorai  tov  cpnopiovl 

240.  Explain  vvpSikoi  or  crvvrjyopol,  ivnpeXriTai  rap  Atovvirtoiv  ; /Jooivai,  a <- 
rojpai,  dOXodcrai , rrutypoviarai,  dewpot,  upopvfipovcs,  7rvXayopoi  or  TnjXayopal. 

241.  From  what  rank  were  the  ypappareT;  generally  chosen  ? Who 
attended  on  the  higher  functionaries  ? From  what  rank  were  the  Snpoaiui 
(innpcTai)  generally  taken  ? 

242.  On  what  was  the  whole  system  of  Solon’s  legislation  based  ? 

243.  What  were  the  only  forbidden  degrees?  By  what  was  every 

marriage  preceded  ? Whose  consent  was  necessary  ? Explain  dy-^orreia. 
Might  men  have  more  than  one  wife  ? 244.  How  was  the  marriage 

sanctioned?  By  whom  was  the  dowry  generally  given  ? Did  it  become 
the  absolute  property  of  the  husband  1 Might  the  husband  divorce  his 
wife  ? What  is  the  term  for  to  divorce  ? If  the  husband  sent  away  his 
wife,  what  must  he  do?  If  both  parties  agreed  to  the  separation,  was 
any  thing  further  requisite  ? In  the  event  of  the  wife  wishing  to  leave 
(dmXeiircip)  her  husband,  what  was  necessary?  245.  Who  could  claim 
the  hand  of  an  heiress  or  evixXripos  1 Explain  the  term  i-niK-Xripos.  Was 
the  nearest  male  relation  compelled  to  marry  a poor  Epicleros  ? Against 
what  were  these  cir'iKXapin  protected  ? 

246.  On  what  was  the  authority  of  the  father  dependent?  What 
right  did  the  father  possess  ? What  was  he  bound  to  do  for  each  son  ? 
What  were  the  sons  bound  to  do  for  him  ? Explain  cianolritTcs.  In  what 
light  was  adoption  generally  considered?  To  what  condition  was  it 
always  subject  ? When  only  could  the  adopted  son  return  to  his  original 
family?  247.  Under  what  superintendence  was  guardianship  placed  I 


186 


QUESTIONS  TO 


Explain  the  Athenian  sense  of  “ infant  ” or  “ minor.”  When  was  the 
legal  majority  attained?  Might  guardians  be  appointed  by  will?  Who 
usually  undertook  the  office  of  guardian  ? To  whom  did  the  guardian- 
ship of  the  Epicleri,  and  the  management  of  property  belonging  to  minors 
belong? 

248.  Were  v69oi  entitled  to  the  property  of  their  parents?  Were 
they  entitled  to  any  of  it  ? What  was  the  rule  on  this  point  with  refer- 
ence to  adopted  children?  Explain  ay^urrcla  crvyyti/eia.  Had  a father 
the  absolute  right  of  disinheriting  a son  ? What  became  of  the  children 
of  one  who  at  the  time  of  his  death  was  artyos  on  account  of  debt  to  the 
state  ? Explain  the  law  of  inheritance  : stating  (1)  whether  all  the  sons 
inherited,  or  only  the  eldest : if  all,  (2)  whether  in  equal  or  unequal 
proportions:  (3)  whether  daughters  inherited  at  all:  (4)  if  so,  equally, 
unequally , or  how . Explain  eirbekqpoi.  249.  What  was  the  Attic  law  in 
cases  of  intestacy  ? Who  succeeded  when  there  were  neither  natural  not 
adopted  heirs  ? What  became  of  the  property  of  /jctoikoi  under  those  cir- 
cumstances? What  free  citizens  had  not  the  right  of  making  a will 
(SiaOriKti)  ? What  wills  were  invalid  ? 250.  Might  legacies  (itupa u) 

always  be  left  ? Who  only  could  inherit  property  ? When  was  the 
attention  of  the  people  drawn  to  the  subject  of  inheritances?  What  was 
the  ground  of  this  strictness  ? 

251.  What  were  the  chief  means  of  security  in  pecuniary  transac- 
tions? What  change  did  Solon  make  in  the  old  law  of  debt?  What 
was  done  at  the  paying  over  of  a loan  to  the  borrower?  What  became 
customaiy  as  trade  and  barter  increased  ? 252.  Was  the  rate  of  interest 

fixed  by  Solon  ? What  was  it  generally  ? How  was  interest  reckoned  ? 
Explain  iyyCi;.  When  was  it  permitted  ? What  oath  were  the  /3ov/Levral 
required  to  swear?  To  whom  did  this  oath  not  apply  ? Were  there  any 
symbolic  usages  in  the  transfer  of  real  property? 

253.  Of  what  courts  do  we  find  mention  at  a very  early  period  ? By 
whom  were  they  respectively  established  or  confirmed  ? Who  were  ad- 
mitted to  these  courts  by  Solon’s  constitutions?  Was  the  judicial 
authority  of  the  Archons  immediately  superseded  ? 254.  From  what 

did  the  overwhelming  weight  of  business  in  these  courts  result?  What 
courts  of  justice  were  there  besides  those  of  the  Areopagites  and 
Ephet®  ? 

255.  Derive  the  term  Heliasts.  How  must  they  be  considered  ? 
How  were  the  Heliasts  chosen  ? How  were  they  divided  ? Did  they 
take  an  oath  of  office  ? 256.  When  any  cause  was  to  be  tried,  how  was 

it  decided,  at  which  of  the  various  spots,  and  under  the  presidency  of 
which  magistrate  each  division  should  sit  ? How  was  the  place  then 
marked  out?  Was  the  number  of  judges  fixed?  Was  the  number  gen- 
erally odd  or  even  ? Before  whom  were  questions  respecting  the  desecra 
tion  of  the  mysteries,  and  those  which  regarded  breaches  of  military  dis- 
cipline respectively  tried  ? 257.  To  what  cases  did  the  authority  of  the 

Heliasts  not  extend?  What  did  each  judge  (or  juror)  on  arriving  at  the 
appointed  place,  receive  ? To  what  was  he  entitled  on  the  production  of 
it?  How  long  had  this  been  the  custom  ? Who  paid  this  juror’s  fee? 
When  were  no  sessions  held  ? Explain  drroij>pa6cs , fyrspai.  When  did  the 
Areopagites  sit,  but  not  the  Heliasts  ? 

258.  Describe  the  court  of  the  Diaetel®.  To  whom  did  an  appeal  lie 
from  the  Diaetet®?  State  their  number,  age,  mode  of  election.  How 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


187 


many  Dirzteta  sat  on  each  cause  ? What  fees  did  they  receive  ? To 
whom  were  they  responsible  ? 259.  Explain  the  Forty.  What  judges 

went  on  circuit  ? What  causes  did  they  try  1 What  two  offices  did 
these  circuit-judges  combine  ? 

260.  By  the  constitution  of  Solon,  of  whom  did  the  court  of  Areopa- 
gus consist?  Of  what  did  it  take  cognizance  ? Were  the  judges  respon- 
sible ? Before  whom  might  they  be  arraigned  ? by  whom  expelled  ? 
What  was  their  court  originally  besides  a StKaarfipior  ? 261.  By  whom 

and  when  was  the  authority  of  this  court  greatly  circumscribed  ? Did  it 
recover  its  former  power  and  influence  in  the  state  ? 

262.  How  many  Ephetw  were  there  ? To  whom  was  their  organiza- 
tion principally  ascribed  ? To  what  cases  did  their  jurisdiction  extend  ? 
Where  did  they  sit  to  try  different  causes  ? What  was  the  severest  pen- 
alty inflicted  by  them  ? In  later  times  by  whom  were  their  functions  in 
a great  measure  usurped  ? 

263.  Who  took  charge  of  the  preliminary  proceedings  and  presided 
at  the  trial  in  cases  of  disputed  succession  and  family  quarrels  between 
citizens?  Who  in  similar  disputes  between  piroiKoc  and  foreigners?  At 
what  trials  did  the  /iauiXrij  preside?  at  what  the  Thesmothetae ? 

264.  Who  only  were  permitted  to  plead  in  person  ? Who  appeared 
for  (1)  slaves,  (2)  pirotKoi,  (3)  women  and  minors  ? 

265.  Was  the  line  between  public  and  private  wrongs  very  strictly 
drawn?  Support  your  opinion  by  instances.  To  bring  forward  a public 
complaint,  must  the  complainant  be  the  party  injured  ? To  whom  did 
the  fine  imposed  then  go  ? Under  what  circumstances  was  the  public 
prosecutor  punished  ? How  ? 

266.  What  is  the  general  term  for  a public  prosecution  ? Explain 
!i dirayioyfi,  tyfiyrivis.7  Of  what  other  forms  do  we  read? 

267.  Mention  some  trials  (1)  before  the  Archon,  (2)  before  the  King, 
(3)  before  the  Polemarch,  (4)  before  the  Thesmothetas,  (5)  before  the 
Eleven,  (6)  before  the  Strategi.  Explain  <5iVj?  dirpoaraaiov,  vffpsus. 

268.  By  whom  only  could  private  complaints  be  brought  forward  ? In 
all  such  actions  what  rule  was  there  ? Explain  i-w/JsXia. 

269.  Give  examples  of  private  actions  (1)  before  the  Archon,  (2)  be- 
fore the  Thesmothetae,  (3)  before  the  Forty. 

270.  Explain  the  terms  K^pais  or  i:p6K\r}aii,  6 Scaj/ccov,  b (pevy/jiv,  Kbprppe^, 

irpvTaveZa.  When  only  was  recourse  had  to  the  anayayn  ? What  was  the 
accusation  in  writing  called  ? 271.  In  private  actions  who  were  required 

to  deposit  security?  VVhat  exception  was  there?  What  became  of  this 
deposit  ? In  criminal  proceedings  was  any  thing  deposited  ? Of  what 
other  dues'do  we  read  ? 

272.  Explain  dvaKpTai;  rrjs  diVijs,  dvropocria,  Siupoaia.  What  was  pre- 
pared against  the  day  of  trial,  besides  the  proofs,  &c.  ? Explain  the  dif- 
ference between  paprvpiai  and  iKpaprvpiai.  How  were  slaves  examined  ? 


7 vErJ£ifif,  a written  information  laid  before  the  proper  magistrate ; 
it  referred  to  a person’s  disqualification  for  an  office  he  had  undertaken, 
or  a right  he  had  exercised;  it  was  also  against  an  absent  person: 
dTraywya  against  one  present,  who  was  carried  before  the  magistrate: 
t^tjyijvif  was  when  a criminal  found  in  concealment  was  visited  by  the 
magistrate. 


188 


QUESTIONS  TO 


273.  Explain  moipoaia.  Explain  ciii«u  e/ipr/voi.  During  the  ivanpXais  in 
private  actions,  how  might  the  proceedings  be  set  aside  ? or  how  quashed  ? 

274.  What  was  the  day  appointed  for  the  trial  called?  What  if  the 
defendant  were  absent  without  reasonable  cause?  Explain  ipfipcv  rara- 
SiKii^uv.  What  assistance  might  the  parties  obtain  ? How  was  the  time 
they  were  allowed  to  occupy  measured  ? Explain  \tyc  £r  r£>  ipip  liian. 
When  was  the  Clepsydra  stopped?  275.  How  was  the  verdict  given? 
If  the  votes  were  equal,  was  it  a verdict  of  acquittal  or  of  condemnation  ? 
Explain  ayibi>  Tiprjros  and  aywv  drtprjrds  : i]  TTpainj  i pt](])OS,  TipavOai  and  avTLTL - 
ju dtrOai  : fj  devrcpa  tpijtpos  : ripae,  Trpoanpav. 

276.  On  whom  did  the  duty  of  prosecuting  in  cases  of  murder  de- 
volve? Describe  the  formalities  observed?  What  dvarptaii  was  insti- 
tuted ? HoW  long  were  these  investigations  continued  ? 

277.  Where  and  under  whose  presidency  was  the  court  of  the  Are- 
opagites  held  ? To  whom  was  a solemn  oath  administered  ? How  often 
did  the  accuser  and  the  accused  address  the  court?  What  were  they 
forbidden  to  attempt?  After  the  first  pleading,  what  might  the  accused 
do?  When  did  the  members  of  the  court  vote  ? What  if  the  votes  were 
equal  ? When  did  the  obligation  to  prosecute  cease  ? When  might  the 
relations  themselves  abandon  the  prosecution  ? 

278.  What  if  the  defendant  were  li^cpnpeposl  To  what  did  a SUn 
£fjv\ns  subject  him?  What  might  foreigners  be  compelled  to  do?  In 
public  actions  what  did  those  who  were  sentenced  to  a fine  become  ? and 
what  were  they  obliged  to  do  ? When  and  how  much  was  the  penalty 
increased  ? What  might  the  state  do  at  last  ? 

279.  What  appeals  were  allowed?  From  whom  was  there  no 
appeal  ? On  what  conditions  could  a decision  of  the  Heliasts  be  set 
aside  ? Explain  dixy  ipcvSopaprvpiojv. 

280.  Of  what  kinds  were  punishments?  What  did  the  first  compre- 
hend ? 

281.  Did  Atimia  in  itself  render  the  person  infamous  ? Explain  the 

three  varieties  of  Atimia.  For  what  purposes  was  artful  sometimes 
used  ? 282.  Might  Atimia  ever  be  inflicted  without  the  intervention  of 

a judicial  sentence  ? Explain  Steliteusis.  How  did  it  differ  from 
Atimia  ? 

283.  When  was  imprisonment  employed  ? when  confiscation  ? To 
what  was  confiscation  not  added.  From  what  must  it  be  distinguished  ? 
284.  When  sentence  of  banishment  was  pronounced,  what  was  done  ? 
On  whom  was  it  inflicted  in  conjunction  with  confiscation  ? What  was 
the  punishment  for  unpremeditated  homicide  ? On  whom  was  slavery 
inflicted  ? as  a punishment  ? 285.  Might  capital  punishment  ever  be  in- 

flicted by  the  injured  party  on  the  spot  ? What  was  the  capital  punish- 
ment for  offences  against  the  state?  For  what  was  it  inflicted  ? 

286,  287.  Account  for  the  eagerness  with  which  men  sought  the  office 
of  judge?  Explain  the  term  sycophant.* *  Give  instances  of  this  wretched 
administration  of  the  laws  in  the  later  times.9 


8 Properly  it  meant  one  who  informed  against  an  exporter  of  figs,  it 
being,  by  an  old  statute,  illegal  to  export  them  from  Attica.  Hence  it 
became  a general  term  for  a vexatious  informer,  one  who  traded  for  his 
own  profit  in  accusing  public  characters,  &c. 

* By  Hermocopidoe  is  meant  the  persons,  who  mutilated  the  Hermae _ 
i.  e.  the  statues  of  Hermes  (Mercury)  in  the  streets  of  Athens. 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


189 


288.  Who  was  the  chief  deity?  What  other  deities  did  the  Atheni- 
ans worship?  Mention  some  of  the  national  heroes.  289.  How  were 
the  expenses  of  religious  worship  defrayed  ? Give  the  general  character 
of  the  Athenian  temples.  Explain  IpK os  or  rrqoi/JoAoj,  /Jiopos,  0-17*0'?,  iiyaXy.a, 
u6vro v,  pcyapov , dvaKTOpov , dvadq/jara,  avvXa. 

290.  Name  the  more  important  festivals.  Describe  the  Panathenata. 
What  was  the  chief  solemnity  at  the  great  Panathenaea  ? What  part  in 
the  Panathencea  belonged  to  the  Metceci  ? What  was  the  prize  ? Ex- 
plain Xap^aXriipopia.  How  many  Dionysia  were  there  ? Give  the  names 
of  each,  and  the  time  of  its  celebration.  When  were  theatrical  repre- 
sentations given  ? Under  whose  superintendence  were  the  Lencea  ? Who 
conducted  the  great  Dionysia  ? 

291.  In  whose  honour  were  the  Thesmophoria  held?  When  and 
how  often  ? In  whose  honour  were  the  Eleusinia  held  ? What  purpose 
did  the  lesser  serve  ? When  and  where  were  they  held  ? When,  how 
often,  and  how  long  were  the  greater  Eleusinia  held  ? Explain  yvcTadai, 

inOTTrai,  lepotpavTui,  iatydfiv. 

292.  Mention  some  priesthoods  that  were  confined  to  certain  sacer- 
dotal families  ? What  was  it  requisite  that  all  priests  should  be  ? How 
were  these  particulars  ascertained  ? How  were  they  generally  elected  ? 
Was  the  time  of  their  continuance  in  office  invariable?  What  did  their 
duties  consist  in?  To  whom  did  they  account  for  the  Temple-revenues  ? 

293.  What  did  the  priests  themselves  receive  ? Did  they  bear  the  usual 
burdens  in  common  with  their  fellow-citizens?  With  what  religious 
solemnities  was  the  king  intrusted?  With  what  the  Archon ? Name 
some  other  officers  employed  in  matters  relating  to  public  worship. 

294.  Did  the  general  belief  in  the  national  deities  remain  unim- 
paired? To  what  was  religious  worship  finally  degraded  ? What  tem- 
poral advantage  did  the  poor  derive  from  it  ? 

295.  By  the  constitution  of  Solon,  what  classes  were  required  to  serve 
as  soldiers?  How  were  these  classes  selected?  How  did  the  Thetes 
serve  ? What  duties  did  the  Metceci  perform  ? Were  slaves  ever  em- 
ployed in  war  ? In  later  times  how  do  we  often  find  the  Thetes  and  the 
Metceci  serving?  296.  What  service  belonged  to  citizens  from  their 
eighteenth  to  their  twentieth  year?  What  was  the  regular  period  of 
service?  Was  the  maximum  age  invariable  I On  what  was  the  levy 
founded?  How  were  the  soldiers  distributed?  When  did  the  soldiers 
first  receive  pay ? Was  it  a fixed  pay?  What  was  the  usual  pay  of 
common  soldiers  ? 297.  what  of  officers?  what  of  cavalry?  what  of  the 
commander-in-chief?  Did  the  soldiers  forage  for  themselves?  When 
did  the  state  supply  all  sorts  of  provisions?  What  arrangement  was 
generally  made  with  respect  to  the  pay  of  the  army  ? 

298.  Explain  the  term  Hoplites,  and  their  xaeonXta.  What  were  the 
light-armed  called?  Who  first  organized  the  s-Aravrnt ? What  were 
their  arms  ? When  did  Athens  begin  to  maintain  a standing  army  ? 
How  large  was  it  at  first?  What  increase  did  it  afterwards  receive  ? 
Explain  the  term  Karduram t.  What  mercenary  light  troops  were  em- 
ployed in  the  Peloponnesian  war  ? At  a later  period  were  mercenary 
troops  commonly  employed  ? 

299.  How  many  Strategi  were  there  ? how  elected  ? What  qualifi- 
cation must  the  Strategi  possess?  Did  all  or  some  take  the  field  ? If 
the  command  was  divided,  describe  how.  Were  armies  ever  commanded 


190 


QUESTIONS  TO 


by  leaders  who  were  not  Strategi  ? 300.  What  duties  belonged  to  the 
Strategi  besides  the  command  of  the  forces?  In  what  cases  had  they 
jurisdiction?  Was  the  office  highly  esteemed ? Name  some  celebrated 
Strategi. 

301.  How  many  were  the  Taxiarchs?  how  chosen  ? What  was  the 
office  of  the  Taxiarchs  ? Who  commanded  the  smaller  divisions  of  the 
army?  Who  commanded  the  Peripoli?  Who  the  cavalry?  What 
was  the  number  of  the  Hipparchs  and  Phylarchs  ? What  their  duties  in 
time  of  peace? 

302.  When  did  the  Greeks  learn  to  conduct  their  campaigns  on  a 

larger  scale?  When  were  military  engines  first  employed ? When  did 
the  art  of  attacking  fortified  places  make  the  most  rapid  advances  ? Un- 
der whom  did  it  obtain  its  highest  degree  of  perfection  ? 303 . Mention 

some  of  the  engines  used.  What  was  done  for  the  wounded?  What 
honours  did  those  receive  who  died  in  their  country’s  cause  ? How  were 
cowards  punished  ? 

304.  Who  laid  the  foundation  of  an  Athenian  fleet?  What  arrange- 
ment did  he  suggest?  Who  augmented  the  fleet?  Of  how  many  ships 
did  it  consist  at  the  battle  of  Salamis?  What  number  did  it  afterwards 
reach  ? Describe  and  give  the  name  of  their  ships  of  war.  What  was 
the  usual  number  of  the  crew?  What  their  distribution  through  the 
vessel?  Who  were  the  iKiParail  305.  Explain  arpaTuoTides,  boXirayatyot. 
When  did  they  begin  to  employ  larger  ships?  Explain  rptaiaSi/Topoi, 
neitrrjtdi'Toputj  bXtca6es,  slXtires,  n\oia.  From  what  classes  were  the  rowers 
generally  taken? 

306.  To  whom  did  the  legislation  in  naval  affairs  belong]  What 
body  managed  them  in  ordinary  cases?  In  whom  was  the  chief  com- 
mand vested  ? What  was  the  admiral’s  ship  called  ? Who  superintended 
the  equipment  of  the  fleet  ? By  whom  was  each  trireme  commanded  ? 
What  did  he  receive  from  the  state  in  the  earlier  times  ? what  in  the 
later?  307.  Explain  the  terms  recopia,  wmtomi,  crietvodfjKai.  To  whom 
was  the  superintendence  of  the  stores  committed?  Describe  the  number, 
election,  &.c.,  of  these  storekeepers,  and  their  duties.  What  was  the 
most  formidable  weapon  in  naval  engagements  ? What  the  principal 
manoeuvres  ? 

308.  What  was  a very  considerable  item  of  public  expenditure  ? Was 
any  part  of  these  expenses  defrayed  by  private  contributions?  What 
was  another  great  expense  ? What  were  the  Delian  and  the  Paralian 
Triremes  ? What  did  their  crews  receive  ? Did  the  state  pay  the  whole 
or  any  part  of  this? 

309.  Did  the  troops  receive  pay,  arms,  clothing  ( all  or  any  of  these) 
from  the  state  ? When  did  they  first  receive  pay  ? Mention  some  heavy 
item  of  the  military  expenses.  What  proposition  did  Themistocles  make 
with  reference  to  the  fleet  ? To  whom  was  the  duty  of  seeing  that  some 
triremes  were  built  every  year  committed  ? 

310.  Did  the  building  and  keeping  in  repair  the  public  works  cost  the 
state  much?  Did  the  state  pay  for  the  police ? Give  its  name  and 
numbers.  Mention  some  other  public  expenses.  What  were  the  usual 
public  rewards?  (note  9.) 

311.  From  what  time  was  the  payment  of  public  officers  common? 
Explain  the  following  payments,  giving  the  amount  of  each : to  ckkXtioi- 
botlk6v  or  pioddf  i/txXijutatrri/tds,  to  0ov\cvtu<6v,  to  6iko.otik.6v.  What  rule 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


191 


was  made  to  prevent  abuses  ? 312.  Did  the  magistrates  receive  pay? 

Mention  some  public  functionaries  who  received  remuneration.  Explain 
cirrivis  cv  npvTai'SLa ),  dciairoi,  iyodiov,  nopetov. 

313.  Who  were  the  Qtarpcdvai  or  fha.Tponti\oL  ? Explain  to  OsiopiKdi/, 
To  what  was  the  dcupixdv  afterwards  raised?  Was  the  payment  of  it 
restricted  to  the  poorest  classes?  How  was  it  supported?  Who  at  last 
applied  this  fund  to  its  original  use  ? 314.  Did  any  impotent  persons 

receive  pay  ? To  whom  was  the  distribution  of  these  pensions  intrusted  ? 
In  times  of  scarcity  what  did  the  government  do  ? 

315.  At  what  is  the  public  revenue  reckoned  by  Aristophanes?  To 
what  did  the  tribute  paid  by  the  allies  amount  ? When  was  the  state 
exchequer  emptied  ? From  what  sources  was  the  ordinary  income 
derived  ? from  what  the  extraordinary  ? 

316.  Explain  the  following  sources  of  the  ordinary  income : (1)  public 
property,  (2)  taxes  or  contributions,  (3)  duties.  Explain  to  peroUiov. 
TTEVTY]KOOTY]  317.  TcXdivai,  TsXiui/apxac  or  ap^wrai.  What  punishment  was 
inflicted  on  public  defaulters  ? If  they  continued,  in  debt  to  the  state, 
how  was  the  punishment  increased  ? From  what  enactment  were  they 
specially  excepted? 

318.  What  revenue  was  derived  from  the  courts  of  justice  ? What 
fine  was  exacted  from  those  who  failed  to  obtain  the  votes  of  a fifth  part 
of  the  judges  ? 

319.  When  was  the  common  treasury  transferred  to  Athens?  At 

what  sum  did  Aristides  fix  the  tribute-money  of  the  allies?  What 
change  with  respect  to  this  tribute-money  was  made  after  the  Peloponne- 
sian war?  To  what  did  it  amount  at  a later  period  ? 320.  Was  this 

revenue  ever  recovered?  To  whom  was  the  custody  of  this  treasure 
originally  intrusted  ? On  what  was  it  then  expended  ? After  the 
anarchy,  who  obtained  nearly  the  whole  financial  administration? 

321.  Explain  AuTovpyicu.  What  were  the  ordinary  services  or  Litur- 
gies called  ? To  what  had  all  the  ordinary  liturgies  reference,  and  how 
were  they  exacted?  322.  Explain  the  following  Liturgies:  xopriyia, 
yvprouTiapxia,  dp^iS^wpia.  When  were  theatrical  representations  given? 
Explain  x°P6v  uireTv,  and  what  the  granting  of  the  request  implied.  Of 
what  liturgy  was  the  Lampadarchy  a branch  ? Explain  the  term 
*E  ariaais. 

323.  What  were  the  extraordinary  sources  of  revenue  ? Explain 
ImSdaets,  iic<popat.  Who  were  exempted  from  etoipopai  ? Who  only  were 
rated  to  the  lull  amount?  What  is  the  term  for  the  rateable  value  of  a 
property?  324.  When  were  avypopiai  introduced?  Explain  the  term. 
How  were  the  taxes  charged  on  the  ovyyopiai  ? Explain  irpoucdtpciv, 
arrliocns.  What  were  not  included  in  the  valuation,  when  an  durlSocris 
took  place  ? 

325.  What  was  the  Trierarchy  ? What  did  each  Naucraria  furnish  ? 
How  many  were  there  originally?  How  many  since  the  time  of  Clis- 
thenes?  How  and  by  whom  were  Trierarchs  afterwards  chosen  ? How 
was  the  expense  of  a vessel  divided  originally  between  the  state  and  the 
Trierarch?  326.  If  a Trierarch  complained  that  his  ship  had  sustained 
damage  in  a storm  without  any  fault  on  his  part,  what  was  done?  Was 
the  expense  of  equipping  a ship  ever  divided  ? Explain  the  plan  (324). 
Was  the  plan  of  Symmorise  ever  extended  to  the  Trierarchy?  Explain 
the  term  ouvtcXcU.  327.  What  law  was  passed  in  the  time  of  Demos- 


192 


QUESTIONS  TO 


thenes  with  respect  to  Trierarchs  ? How  long  did  a Trierarch  continue? 
To  whom  was  account  rendered  ? Were  Trierarehies  sometimes  under- 
taken voluntarily? 

328.  Who  were  exempted  from  Liturgies?  What  was  no  citizen 
required  to  undertake?  Were  the  Metoeci  liable  to  Liturgies? 

329.  Who  exercised  the  chief  control  over  the  finances?  Explain 

the  office,  &.C.,  of  the  vpaKTopcs,  irw\r/Tai,  dnoSeKrai.  Explain  the  original 
and  later  office  of  the  jcwAcuptrai  (note  3).  330.  Into  what  office  were 

the  moneys  received  paid  ? Explain  ra/tiat  rijs  dcov.  By  whom  were 
disbursements  made  latterly  ? Who  checked  his  accounts  ? 331.  Were 

there  any  separate  funds  set  apart  for  the  purpose  of  religious  worship? 
Were  any  other  sources  of  income  available  for  this  purpose?  Where 
and  by  whom  were  these  funds  kept  after  b.  c.  420  ? 

332,  333.  What  was  the  general  character  of  the  Attic  silver  coinage  ? 
What  part  of  a pva  was  a Spa^pfi  ? 

How  many  oboli  did  a drachma  contain  ? 

What  was  a three-oboli  piece  called  ? 

What  was  a half-obolus  piece  called  ? 

How  many  ;yaWr  did  an  obolus  contain? 

How  many  \e-md  did  a chalchus  contain  ? 

What  was  a two-chalcus  piece  called  ? 

What  was  the  Tetradrachmon  also  called  ? How  many  Mina:  made  a 
Talent?  Were  the  Talent  and  Mina  coins?  Were  there  any  silver 
coins  of  the  same  value  as  the  chalcus,  &c.  ? What  were  their  gold 
coins?  How  many  drachma:  did  a slater  equal  (1)  in  weight,  (2)  in 
value  ? What  had  the  same  weight  and  value  as  the  Stater  ? Had 
individual  Demi  the  right  of  coining  money  ? What  proportion  did  the 
jEginetan  standard  of  weights  and  coinage  bear  to  the  Attic  standard  ? 
What  proportion  did  the  Euboi'c  talent  bear  to  that  of  Solon  ? How  was 
it  used  in  later  times  ? 

334.  What  was  the  general  difference  between  the  private  life  of  the 
Spartans  and  Athenians? 

335.  Was  the  soil  of  Attica  remarkable  for  its  fertility?  What  were 
its  chief  products  ? To  what  were  the  mountain  districts  favourable  ? 
To  what  the  coasts?  From  whence  was  corn  imported  every  year? 
What  were  their  other  imports?  What  was  imported  from  Pontus, 
Macedonia,  Thrace  ? From  what  country  were  the  more  generous  wines 
imported  ? What  were  the  exports  ? 

336.  What  greatly  promoted  the  trade  of  Attica?  Was  exportation 
permitted  unconditionally  or  not  ? What  might  not  be  sent  out  of  Attica 
at  all?  Might  weapons  be  exported  unconditionally?  By  what  were 
commercial  restrictions  often  occasioned  ? Was  the  buying  up  of  corn 
ever  restricted?  337.  Explain  xdffijAoi.  How  were  they  regarded  ? 
What  artisans  raised  themselves  to  power  through  the  democratic  consti- 
tution? Who  especially  favoured  manufacturing  industry?  Were  all 

trades  open  to  Metceci  ? 

338.  From  whom  do  the  Hellenes  seem  originally  to  have  derived 
their  scale  of  weights  and  measures  ? 

How  many  nu'XiuaTai  made  a foot? 

How  many  Hkt-vX'ii  made  a miAuio-rfo  ? 

How  many  c IktvXdi  made  a irmOaph? 

How  was  the  Cubit  or  Ell  subdivided  ? How  was  the  rv y<j>v  subdivided  ? 


MANUAL  OP  GRECIAN  ANT.IQU1 1 [ES. 


193 


How  many  feet  did  the  Spyvia  contain  ? How  many  the  n-Xedpov  ? How 
many  superficial  square  feet  did  the  nXWpov  contain  l How  many  Roman 
feet  did  the  araSioti  contain  ? When  did  the  stadion  begin  to  be  generally 
used  as  a measure  of  length  for  the  greater  distances  1 

339.  What  part  of  a peSipfos  was  perprirris. 

What  part  of  a Metretes  was  a ^oSj  ( congius ) 1 
What  part  of  a Chus  was  a ^itrrns  ( sextarius ) ? 

What  part  of  a Xestes  was  a KoruXn  ( hemina ) l 
What  part  of  a Cotyle  was  a Tiraprov  l • * 

What  part  of  a Tetarton  was  an  u^ipapov  ? 

What  part  of  a Oxybaphon  was  a KvctSns  ? 

340.  What  was  the  principal  measure  for  dry  goods? 

What  part  of  a Medimnus  was  a Urevs.'! 

What  part  of  a Hekteus  was  a bpienrov  ? 

What  part  of  a Hemiekton  was  a ;y<n 
What  part  of  a Choanix  was  a {cams  ? 

What  part  of  a Xestes  was  a kotvXp  ? 

What  part  of  a Cotyle  was  a KvaOos  ? 

341.  Was  the  Attic  year  solar  or  lunar?  Did  this  agree  with  the 
practice  of  all  the  Hellenic  states  ? What  was  the  number  of  days  in 
each  month  ? Explain  pijves  koTXoi  and  TrXppeig.  Explain  py]v  IpPoXipos  or 
ipfioXipaTos,  and  the  reason  why  it  was  necessary.  What  different  cycles 
were  invented  for  the  intercalation?  342.  Who  published  the  first  cal- 
endar ? when  ? What  period  did  he  invent  ? By  this  method  how  many 
months  were  intercalated  in  nineteen  years  ? In  which  of  the  nineteen 
years  was  the  intercalation  made  ? How  many  days  would  his  cycle  of 
nineteen  years  give  ? How  many  too  many  would  this  be  ? What  day 
was  left  out  as  a opcpa  i^aipitnposl  What  effect  had  this  upon  prjvei 
koiXol  and  xXrjpeis  ? Who  especially  introduced  other  changes  ? 

343.  Give  the  names  of  the  three  summer  months.  To  what  English 
month  did  HecaWnboson  nearly  correspond  ? Name  the  autumn  months. 
Name  the  winter  months.  Name  the  spring  months.  344.  In  the  inter- 
calary year,  where  was  a month  intercalated  ? How  was  each  Attic 
month  divided  ? What  was  the  first  day  of  the  month  called  ? How 
were  the  following  days  of  the  first  decade  reckoned  ? What  would  the 
fourth  of  Hecatomboson  be  called?  How  were  the  days  of  the  second 
decade  reckoned  ? how  those  of  the  third  ? How  were  the  days  of  the 
last  decade  more  commonly  reckoned  ? When  did  the  Attic  civil  year 
begin  ?J 


1 We  here  add,  from  Passow,  a complete  table  of  the  Days. 

FIRST  DECADE.  SECOND  DECADE. 


jjicaovvTcg  prjv6$ 

01  cni  dexaSi 


1 vov[xr]via ' 

11  npcoTT]  'j 

2 Sevrepa 

12  devripa  1 

3 TpLTr] 

13  TplTTJ 

4 TCTapTY) 

14  rtrdprr]  | 

5 Tcip-TCTT) 

► larajiivov  prjvds 

15  ne/jLTTTr]  | 

6 Iktti 

1 6 £KTt]  j 

7 W56pi] 

17  eP66[xr)  j 

8 bySorj 

18  oySoT] 

9 ivarr] 

19  ivarr]  I 

10  SsKOLTT]  J 

20  eiicas  J 

o 


194 


QUESTIONS  TO 


345.  Did  the  state  interfere  much  or  little  with  the  discipline  of  youth  1 
What  was  generally  the  name  of  the  first  born  ?2  Explain  narpodev  ovo- 
pa^eiv.  What  was  the  official  designation  ? In  what  did  the  education 
of  children  in  the  poorer  classes  consist?  What  did  a liberal  education 
comprehend  ? 346.  To  whom  was  the  special  superintendence  of  the 

children  committed  ? Till  what  age  were  they  always  accompanied  by 
the  iraiSayo>y6s  ? When  did  instruction  in  grammar  begin?  Explain 
ypappara  ditiaaKuv.  For  these  exercises  what  authors  were  generally 
used  ? 

347.  When  were  the  boys  sent  to  a Citharistes?  What  did  they 
learn  of  him  ? What  did  they  learn  in  the  Gymnasia  ? Who  superin- 
tended education  ? Who  were  the  aw^porwTai  ? Were  slaves  allowed  to 
take  part  in  the  exercises  of  the  Gymnasia  ? 

348.  How  long  did  their  instruction  in  music  and  grammar  last? 

Where  were  the  two  last  of  these  years  chiefly  spent  ? How  were  the 
youths  employed  when  they  had  passed  through  the  Gymnasia  ? As  the 
circle  of  education  became  wider,  what  did  many  learn  in  the  gymnastic 
school?  By  what  was  .Music  followed?  Were  the  terms  of  celebrated 
Sophists  and  Rhetoricians  moderate  or  not  ? 349.  What  promoted  the 

advance  of  education?  Who  awakened  a taste  for  the  fine  arts?  By 
what  was  it  developed?  For  what  were  the  Athenians  distinguished? 
Into  what  did  their  inquisitiveness  and  love  of  discussion  often  degen- 
erate ? 

350.  How  was  the  education  of  girls  conducted  ? At  what,  did  it 
aim  ? What  kind  of  life  did  girls  lead  ? Did  they  ever  visit  the  thea- 
tres ? Did  they  generally  marry  early  ? What  was  it  considered  unbe- 
coming for  them  to  trouble  thetnselves  about  ? To  whose  inspection  were 
they  subject?  Was  this  an  ancient  office?  Was  the  free  intercourse 
between  the  sexes,  enjoyed  in  our  days,  known  to  the  Athenians  ? 

351.  What  entertainments  of  a public  character  have  been  already 
mentioned?  Explain  Spa  roi,  avpfloMi.  What  were  the  usual  daily 
meals?  When  did  luxury  extend  itself  to  the  table?  352.  Mention 
some  attempts  to  restrain  extravagance  and  luxury  by  legislative  enact- 


THIRD  DECADE. 


(i.)  Reckoned  forwards  (rare). 

21  tt  pwrrj 

22  Sevrepa 

23  TplTl i 

24  Teraprr) 

25  Trepnrp 

26  'S<Tp 

27  tffSdpp 

28  OyS6p 

29  ivarrj 

30  rpiaxas  J 


(ii.)  Reckoned  backwards. 

21  de/carri 

22  ivoLTri 

23  OySop 

24  iPStipp 

25  Ikti)  <p6ivovTOS  (or  iravo/jirov) 

26  nt/juTTr)  f ppif6s. 

27  Teraprp 

28  TpLTTJ 

29  Scvripa 

30  eprj  Kal  via 


In  a koT\o$  the  29th  was  the  evrj  Kal  via:  and  each  preceding  da y 
one  less  than  the  number  in  the  table  ; e.  g.  the  21st,  ivarri  6Q[vovtos  ; the 
28th,  Sevripa  QQivovtos. 

2 Thus  : 'I7T7t6vVko$  KaXXiov  'litnovUov  KaXXtaj.  (AridtopJl.) 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


195 


merits.  What  was  the  success  of  these  attempts?  At  their  banquets 
what  was  the  position  of  the  guests  ? Explain  idin/ov  npootpuov,  setpahh 
Sricvov  ; cTriotipnitrpa  or  peraSopnia  ; firirepai  rpdne^ai,  rpayopaTa.  Were  Sym- 
posia. (when  there  were  any)  a part  of  the  SiTitvov  1 353.  Where  was 

the  best  wine  brought  Horn  ? flow  was  it  generally  drunk  ? Who  was 
termed  cvpnoiriap^os  ? Describe  the  company  dress  fora  symposium.  By 
what  besides  conversation  were  the  guests  amused?  What  was  done 
after  supper  ? What  was  the  favourite  game  of  all  ? Describe  it3  (note 
9).  Did  the  women  of  the  family  take  any  part  in  these  entertain- 
ments? 

354.  What  was  the  old  Ionic  costume  ? By  what  was  this  displaced  ? 
Explain  ifapts,  ipanov.  What  was  the  difference  between  ^Xcu va  and 
X^avis.  355.  What  particular  sort  of  surtout  did  the  Ephebi  wear? 
When  only  did  men  wear  any  thing  on  their  heads?  Who  wore  the 
neraaos  on  their  journeys  ? What  did  the  Greeks  wear  on  their  feet  ? 
What  variety  of  sandals  or  soles  do  we  read  of?  Of  what  were  the 
women’s  garments  made  ? 

356,  357.  Where  did  the  Athenian  men  spend  most  of  their  time  ? 
What  was  the  time  called  about  which  the  Agora  began  to  be  full  ? 
About  what  time  was  this?  Explain  £iw r\a,  curio,  vmpipor,  npodvpov, 
TTtpiorv'Kov , avhpwviTis,  yvvaiKoivlris,  pearavhos.  What  was  the  company  or 
eating-room  called?  what  the  bed-chambers?  what  the  spare-rooms  for 
guests  ? What  is  the  difference  between  Kpriue  or  k6tttciv  and  tpoipe. Iv. 
Was  Athens  handsomely  built  ? How  many  houses  did  it  contain  ? 

358.  Explain  ra  Msaia,  rd  v6pipa.  What  were  those  who  found  dead 
bodies,  required  to  do?  On  whom  was  the  duty  of  burying  dead  bodies, 
found  and  unowned,  imposed  from  the  time  of  Clisthenes  ? Describe  the 
funeral  ceremonies.  Explain  TTportQeodai,  dpddviov,  dprjvq&ot,  sauiv , ram- 
pvrrctv,  itspi&tnrvov.  What  is  Solon  said  to  have  restricted  ? 359.  Was 

the  usual  way  of  disposing  of  a corpse  interment  or  burning:  either? 
which  ? or  both  ? Whose  funeral  rites  were  celebrated  with  especial 
magnificence  ? Were  there  public  burial-grounds  near  the  city  ? When 
was  a general  festival  in  honour  of  the  dead  celebrated  ? 

360,  361.  What  were  the  great  national  solemnities  or  games?  Who 
were  excluded  from  these  festivals?  Explain  xaroyvpeis-  What  later 
festival  bore  a national  character  ? 


3 The  simplest  mode  was  when  each  threw  the  wine  left  in  his  cup  so 
as  to  strike  smartly  in  a metal  basin,  at  the  same  time  invoking  his  mis- 
tress’s name ; if  all  fell  in  the  basin,  and  the  sound  was  clear,  it  was  a 
sign  he  stood  well  with  her  ; cf.  Call.  Fr.  102.  The  wine  thus  throicn 
was  called  Aurayef  or  Aaray and  also,  like  the  game  itself,  Korraffoi.  The 
basin,  kottolPciov,  XarayeTov,  &.C.,  also  called  Kdrrafios.  The  game  soon 
became  more  complicated,  and  was  played  in  various  ways.  Sometimes 
a number  of  little  cups  (b^v(3aif,a)  were  set  floating,  and  he  who  threw  his 
k6tt<i0os  so  as  to  upset  the  greatest  number  in  a given  number  of  throws, 
won  the  prize  (noTTapriov).  Sometimes  the  wine  was  thrown  upon  a scale 
(irAum-tyf)  suspended  over  a little  image  (pavo;  or  yipav)  placed  in  water; 
here  the  *orra/?os  was  to  be  thrown,  so  as  to  make  the  scale  descend  on 
the  head  of  the  image.”— From  Liddell  and  Scott. 


196 


QUESTIONS  TO 


362.  What  was  the  supposed  origin  of  the  Olympic  games?  Are 
they  mentioned  by  Homer  ? By  whom  and  when  were  they  revived  ? 
What  year  b.  o.  agrees  with  the  first  Olympiad?  Who  was  victor  in  the 
maSiop  that  year  ? (note  8.)  In  whose  honour  were  the  games  held  ? 
how  often  ? how  long?  where?  363.  Who  were  the  managers  of  the 
games?  Explain  the  Olympic  etexcipta  and  trnoi/Sai.  Explain  UpopovLa. 
What  privilege  was  granted  to  those  who  were  present  at  the  festival,  or 
on  their  way  to  join  it  ? What  privilege  did  the  Eleans  originally  pos- 
sess? What  were  the  judges  called?  By  whom  appointed?  Was 
there  an  appeal  from  their  decisions?  What  qualifications  did  the 
Hellanodicce  require  in  the  combatants  ? 364.  What  oath  did  they 

administer  to  the  combatants  ? What  were  the  functionaries  called,  who 
kept  order  during  the  games  ? When  were  the  Olympic  games  finally 
suppressed  ? 

365.  Who  was  the  legendary  founder  of  the  Pythian  games  ? When 
did  they  become  Ay&vts  arttpavirai  ? When  were  they  place?!  under  the 
protection  of  the  Amphictyons  ? How  often  were  they  celebrated  ? 
Where  were  they  held? 

366.  To  whom  is  the  institution  of  the  Nemean  games  ascribed  by 
tradition  ? Where  and  how  often  were  they  celebrated  ? 

367.  Who  were  the  legendary  founders  of  the  Isthmian  games? 
Who  revived  them  ? Who  had  the  -rrpoeSpia  at  these  games  ? When  and 
how  often  were  they  held  ? 

368.  In  what  did  the  gymnastic  and  hippie  contests  consist  at  these 

games?  Describe  the  various  kinds  of  Sp6pos.  Explain  the  miAy:  the. 
7 ruyyy  (with  the  word  ipavreg) : the  Sigkos'  a\pa  (with  term  aArt/prs)* 

369.  Explain  jrayK-parior.  Of  what  did  the  nivTudiov  consist  ? Distinguish 
between  'Imrog  KeXrjg,  owuiplg,  Tedpinnov,  and  between  ~o>Aru  and  reXcioi. 
What  was  a iippa  tc\ciov  required  to  do  ? 370.  On  whom  was  the  honour 

of  victory  conferred?  Of  what  did  the  musical  games  consist  originally  , 
What  exhibitions  were  afterwards  introduced  ? Distinguish  spiral  from 
0pa/3evral. 

371.  To  which  games  were  musical  contests  principally  confined? 
Of  what  did  the  solemnities  connected  with  these  sports  principally  con- 
sist ? Explain  Qecopot,  lepopisat,  ’OXvpTnoviKai,  UvOiopiicai.  372.  What  was 
the  Olympic  crown  of  victory  ? what  the  Pythian  ? the  Nemean  ? the  Isth- 
mian ? How  were  the  victors  honoured  ? What  national  honours  did 
they  receive  ? What  was  a part  of  their  reward  in  Athens  ? What 
honour  had  they  in  Sparta?  Explain  bavUia. 

373.  Were  the  modes  of  reckoning  time,  weights,  measures,  and  coin- 
age the  same  throughout  Greece  ? How  was  the  year  generally  named  ? 
how  at  Athens  ? how  at  Sparta  ? What  general  system  of  chronological 
reckoning  was  finally  adopted?  374.  Plow  does  Thucydides  sometimes 
indicate  the  dates  of  events?  Who  seems  to  have  been  the  first  who 
regularly  employed  the  Olympic  list  as  a chronicle  ? when  ? Who  is  the 
oldest  extant  historian,  whose  writings  contain  such  an  arrangement 
of  events  ? In  what  affairs  was  the  reckoning  by  Olympiads  not 
used  ? 

375.  When  were  the  Olympic  games  held?  What  was  nearly  the 
beginning  of  the  Olympic  year  ? How  do  you  find  the  year  of  the  Chris- 
tian era  which  corresponds  to  a given  Olympic  year  376  (A)  for  an  evenl 


MANUAL  OF  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


197 


that  happened  between  July  1 and  January  1 ? 377.  (B)  How  for  an 

event  that  happened  between  January  1 and  July  1 ? 

378,  379.  What  individuals  or  families  were  considered  able  to  inter- 
pret the  will  of  the  gods  ? Mention  some  places,  which  were  supposed 
to  be  favoured  by  the  immediate  presence  of  the  divinity  1 Describe  the 
oracle  of  Dodona,  its  priests,  responses,  &c. 

380.  What  was  the  most  renowned  oracle  of  Greece?  From  what 
did  it  derive  its  name?  To  what  did  it  principally  owe  its  celebrity? 
381.  How  did  it  acquire  great  wealth?  Under  whose  protection  was  it? 
Why  was  the  oracle  of  Delphi  called  op<pa\d;  tt/s  y> jj  ? 382.  By  whom 

was  the  highest  degree  of  respect  paid  to  this  oracle  ? Why  did  the 
Lacedaemonians  never  undertake  any  affair  of  importance  without  apply- 
ing to  this  oracle  ? Had  it  any  influence  at  Athens  ? 

383.  Account  for  the  gradual  decline  of  the  Delphic  oracle  ? Explain 
the  phrase  n«0['a  <bi\imri$ovcni.  Who  is  the  last  person  of  whom  we  hear 
as  consulting  the  Delphic  oracle  ? 

384.  Explain  rpiirovs,  o'Xyof,  Ylvfjla.  Explain  and  ’A ttoWcov 

Xo^i'af.  385.  How  often  were  the  oracles  delivered?  Explain  Strict, 

Trpotyrjrai,  TTEpirjyrjrai,  TTp6crno\oi  yvvaiKES. 

386.  Mention  some  other  oracles.  How  were  responses  received  in 
the  temple  of  Amphiaraus?  What  foreign  oracle  did  the  Greeks  them- 
selves sometimes  consult  ? Name  some  other  modes  of  obtaining  counsel 
and  information  respecting  future  events.  (See  note  8.) 

387.  Explain  dp<piKTvoviai. 

388.  What  was  the  most  renowned  Amphictyonia  ? From  what  did 
the  ancients  derive  the  name  ? In  what  light  must  Hellen  be  considered  ? 

389.  Who  were  the  members  of  the  Amphictyonic  league?  How  long 
did  they  nominally  retain  the  same  privileges  ? What  were  the  objects 
of  the  league  ? What  were  not  its  objects  ? 

390.  In  what  instances  was  its  efficiency  shown  ? How  did  Philip  of 
Macedon  and  others  employ  the  league  ? Did  the  Amphictyonia  survive 
the  subjection  of  Greece  to  the  Romans  ? 

391.  What  were  the  sanctuaries  of  the  Amphictyons?  In  each  year 
how  many  Amphictyonic  meetings  were  there  ? where  held  ? What  was 
the  number  of  votes?  What  were  the  deputies  styled?  Were  the  Am- 
phictyonic meetings  accompanied  by  any  others  ? 

392.  393.  Mention  some  small  confederations.  What  was  the  corn- 
man  der-in-chief  of  the  league  between  the  Phocians  and  Thessalians 
called  ? 

394.  Who  were  at  the  head  of  the  Boeotian  confederation?  How 
were  the  other  states  treated  by  the  Thebans?  395.  What  Boeotian  state 
played  for  a short  time  an  important  part  in  the  affairs  of  Greece  ? under 
whom?  Give  an  instance  of  the  subsequent  weakness  of  Thebes.  By 
whom  were  the  Thebans  deprived  for  ever  of  their  power  ? 

396.  What  twelve  cities  had  formed  a league  from  the  oldest  times  ? 
when  was  it  dissolved  ? when  revived  ? Under  whom  did  this  league 
become  for  a time  extremely  powerful?  By  what  struggles  was  it 
weakened?  397.  By  whom  were  the  Achaeans  defeated ? How  did  the 
Romans  treat  them  ? When  did  Achaea  become  a Roman  province  ? 

398.  When  and  how  often  were  the  meetings  of  the  Achaean  league 
held  ? Who  were  their  principal  officers  ? How  long  did  they  continue 


198 


QUESTIONS  TO 


m office?  Was  each  city  independent?  What  was  invariably  their 
object  ? 

399.  What  league  proved  the  most  dangerous  enemy  of  the  Macedo- 
nians ? What  league  did  they  form  with,  and  what  against  the  Romans  ? 
What  was  the  result  of  their  league  against  them? 

400.  Describe  the  constitution  of  the  iEtolian  league.  Where  were 
their  greater  meetings  held  ? Who  was  the  highest  officer  of  the  league  ? 
Of  what  other  officers  is  mention  made?  What  was  its  constitution? 

401.  Explain  What  state  first  exercised  iiycpovia  ? In  the 

confederation  against  Xerxes,  who  assumed  the  command  ? Where  did 
the  deputies  meet  at  the  beginning  of  the  Persian  war  ? After  the  battle 
of  Mycale  who  were  also  comprised  in  this  league? 

402.  To  what  state  was  Sparta  soon  compelled  to  cede  the  Hegemo- 

nia  by  sea?  when  ? What  state  at  a later  period  set  up  a Hegemonia  in 
opposition  to  that  of  Sparta  ? What  cities,  islands,  &c.,  obeyed  this 
Hegemonia  ? How  did  Athens  exercise  her  power  ? 403.  At  what  were 

the  (/>6poi  originally  fixed  by  Aristides?  Where  were  they  kept?  Ex- 
plain cWrivoraixiat.  By  what  voluntary  proposal  of  the  allied  states  was 
the  power  of  Athens  greatly  increased  ? When  was  the  treasury  removed 
from  Delos  to  Athens  ? When  was  the  tribute  increased  ? 

404.  From  what  did  the  Peloponnesian  war  arise  ? In  what  years 
did  it  begin  and  end  1 How  was  Athens  again  enabled  to  raise  herself 
to  power  ? Did  the  peace  of  Antalcidas  effect  any  essential  change  in 
the  power  of  Athens?  405.  Did  the  new-born  justice  and  mildness  of 
Athens  last  long  ? Date  the  war  of  the  confederate  states.  What  state 
for  a time  claimed  hegemonical  authority  ? When  did  Philip  of  Mace- 
don  assume  the  Hegemonia  ? What  power  at  last  swallowed  up  both  the 
contending  parties  ? 

406.  To  what  may  the  establishment  of  Grecian  colonies  be  traced 
back  ? Who  is  said  to  have  led  colonies  from  Bceotia  to  Lesbos,  Tenedos, 
&c.  ? How  did  it  happen  that  the  Ionians  had  sought  refuge  in  Attica  ? 

407.  Under  whom  and  where  did  they  found  colonies?  What  islands 
did  they  colonize?  Explain  Yiavidvia.  By  which  of  these  colonies 
especially  were  minor  colonies  founded  ? Where  ? What  Dorian  colo- 
nies were  formed  ? What  were  their  parent  states?  Where  did  they 
settle  ? In  what  Temple  did  their  league  assemble  ? 

408.  By  whom  was  Magna  Greecia  colonized  at  an  early  period  ? 
What  was  the  most  ancient  Eubcean  colony  in  Italy  ? Mention  some 
Eubosan  colonies  in  Gi  eece.  By  what  states  or  cities  were  Syracuse, 
Gela,  Agrigentum,  Corcyra,  Byzantium,  Massilia,  Cyrene,  respectively 
bunded  ? 

409.  What  caused  the  establishment  of  most  of  the  Grecian  colonies  ? 
liVas  colonization  in  the  Grecian  states  a government  measure  ? If  so, 

lur  what  end  ? 

410.  Describe  the  mode  of  sending  out  colonies.  Describe  their  rela- 
tion to  the  mother  country.  Explain  dewpicu.  Mention  an  instance 
of  the  filial  regard  of  even  independent  colonies  for  their  mother- 
state. 

411.  What  form  of  constitution  was  generally  prevalent  in  the  period 
of  active  colonization  ? What  spirit  was  soon  awakened  ? By  what 
causes  ? 412.  What  struggles  ensued  ? Where  and  by  ichom  were 


MANUAL  OP  GRECIAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


199 


wholesome  laws  passed  ? Where  did  the  doctrines  of  Pythagoras  occa- 
sion political  revolutions?  What  was  their  nature ? what  their  dura- 
tion ? 

413.  Distinguish  between  colonization  and  xXi/pov^fa i.  If  the  con- 
quered inhabitants  were  not  expelled,  to  what  kinds  of  treatment  were 
they  subjected  ? 


THE  END. 


A MANUAL 


OF 

ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES, 


WITH  A SHORT 

HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE, 


BY 

DR.  E.  F.  BOJESEN, 

PROFESSOR  OF  THE  GREEK  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 
LN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  SORO. 


TRANSLATED  FROM  THE  GERMAN. 


HTriteT? 

(with  occasional  notes,  and  a complete  series  of  questions) 

BY  THE 

REV.  THOMAS  KERCHEVER  ARNOLD,  M.A., 

HECTOR  OF  LYNDON, 

AND  LATE  FELLOW  OF  TRINITY  COLLEGE,  CAMBRIDGE. 


REVISED,  WITH  ADDITIONS  AND  CORRECTIONS. 
FOURTH  EDITION. 

NEW- YORK : 

D.  APPLETON  & CO.,  346  & 348  BROADWAY. 


M.DCCC.LIV. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  18*18, 

By  D.  APPLETON  & CO., 

In  the  Clerk’s  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Southern  District  of  New- York. 


ADVERTISEMENT. 


A high  chai’acter  of  the  present  volume,  extracted 
from  a review  of  it  by  Dr.  Osenbruggen,  will  be  found 
in  the  preface  to  the  “Manual  of  Grecian  Antiquities.” 
For  the  translation  of  both  volumes  I have  to  thank  the 
Rev.  R.  B.  Paul,  late  Fellow  of  Exeter  College,  Ox- 
ford ; the  author  of  a more  extensive  work  than  Dr. 
Bojesen’s,  upon  “Grecian  Antiquities,”  and  of  a “His- 
tory of  Germany,  on  the  plan  of  Mrs.  Markham  s 
Histories.”  T.  Iv.  A. 

Lyndon,  January  25,  1848. 


It  will  be  sufficient  here  to  state  that  the  same 
course  has  been  pursued  with  the  present  Manual 
which  was  adopted  with  regard  to  the  “ Manual  of 
Grecian  Antiquities.”  Its  value  will  be  found  fully 
equal  to  the  high  opinions  which  have  been  expressed 
concerning  it.  J.  A.  S. 

New-York,  May,  1848. 


11  . 1 


1 

" 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION. 

FA02 

§1.  Roman  Antiquities. — Sources  of  Information  ...  13 

2.  Relation  of  the  subject  to  Political  History  ...  14 

EXTENT  OF  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE.— TOPOGRAPHY  OF 
ROME. 

§1.  Extent  of  the  Roman  Empire 14 

2.  Topography  of  Rome 15 

3.  The  subject  continued ib. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  ROMAN  CONSTITUTION. 

§1.  The  Origin  of  Rome 16 

2.  Period  of  the  Kings 18 

3.  From  the  beginning  of  the  Republic  to  the  Decemviri  . . 19 

4.  From  the  Decemviri  to  the  passing  of  the  Licinian  Law  . 21 

From  the  passing  of  the  Licinian  Law  to  the  Gracchi  . . 22 

6.  From  the  Gracchi  to  the  Social  war  ....  24 

7.  From  the  Social  war  to  the  extinction  of  the  Republic  . . 26 

INHABITANTS  OF  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE. 


§1.  Classification 27 

A.  OF  THE  CIVES  AND  CIVITAS. 

§2.  Nature  of  the  Rights  of  Citizenship  ....  28 

3.  Same  subject  continued  ......  ib. 


CONTENTS. 


Vl 


FAGS 

§4.  Extent  and  increase  of  the  Civic  Community  . . 29 

5.  Mode  in  which  the  rights  of  citizenship  were  acquired 

and  lost  .........  30 

6.  Various  classes  of  citizens  ib. 

7.  The  ancient  Tribus  and  Curia; 31 

8.  Patroni  and  Clientes  ......  ib. 

9.  Patricii  and  Plebeii 32 

10.  Classes  and  Centuri®  ......  33 

11.  The  later  Tribus 34 

12.  Ordines 35 

a.  Ordo  Senatorius  ........  ib. 

b.  Ordo  Equester  ........  36 

13.  Nobiles  and  Ignobiles  .......  38 

14.  Inhabitants  of  the  Colonise  Civium,  Municipia,  and  Pre- 

fecture .........  39 

ra.  Coloni  .........  ib. 

b.  Municipes  .........  40 

c.  Incola:  Praefecturarum 41 

15.  Ingenui  and  Libertini  .......  ib. 

B.  OF  THE  PEREGRINI. 

§16.  Socii  and  Provinciales  41 

17.  Latini 42 

C.  OF  THE  SERVI. 

§18.  Condition  of  the  Slaves 44 

19.  Emancipated  Slaves  ......  45 


POLITICAL  POWER. 

§1.  Division  of  Political  Power 45 

A.  FOPULUS. 

§2.  Comitia 46 

3.  General  regulations  of  the  Comitia  ....  47 

4.  Comitia  curiata  ........  48 

5.  Comitia  centuriata  .......  ib. 

6.  Proceedings  at  the  Comitia  centuriata  ....  49 

7.  Regulations  common  to  the  Comitia  curiata  and  cen- 

turiata .......  4.  „ 50 

8.  Comitia  tributa  .......  ib. 


CONTI  NTS.  Vii 

B.  SENATUS. 

TAGS 

§ 9.  Province  of  the  Senate  ......  51 

10.  Mode  of  proceeding  in  the  Senate  ....  52 

C.  MAGISTRATUS. 

§11.  History  of  the  Magistracy  53 

12.  Magistracy  of  the  Republic — its  character  and  position  55 

13.  The  subject  continued  .......  57 

14.  Of  the  authority  of  Magistrates,  and  its  limits  . . 58 

15.  Consuls,  Decemviri,  Military  Tribunes  with  consular 

authority 60 

16.  Praetors 61 

17.  Censors  .........  63 

18.  Curule  and  Plebeian  iEdiles 65 

19.  Quaestors  .........  66 

20.  Tribunes  of  the  People 67 

21.  Inferior  Officers  . ...  i ...  68 

22.  Extraordinary  Magistrates,  Dictator,  Interrex,  Prsefectus 

urbi  69 

23.  Inferior  Officers 70 

24.  Commissioners  appointed  for  special  purposes  . . 71 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 

A.  THE  LAWS  AND  THEIR  ADMINISTRATION. 


§1.  Classification  of  the  Laws  . . . . . . 71 

2.  Origin  of  the  Legal  Codes  .....  72 

3.  Same  subject  continued — Under  the  Emperors  . . 73 

4.  Judicia  Publica  and  Privata ib. 

5.  Magistrates  ........  74 

6.  Judices  .........  75 

7.  Counsel — Advocati  . . . . . . . • 76 

S.  Jurists  .........  ib. 

PRIVATE  RIGHTS. 

§ 9.  Qualification 77 

10.  Classification  of  Private  Rights — Rights  of  Things  . ib. 

11.  Rights  of  Obligation.  Obligation  by  Contract  , 78 

12.  Obligation  by  Delictum 80 

13.  Family  Rights — Marriage  ......  ib. 


Vlll 


CONTENTS. 


pag  a 


§14.  Same  subject  continued 81 

15.  The  Parental  authority.  Adoption.  Arrogation  . 82 

16.  Agnatio,  Cognatio,  Affinitas 83 

17.  Gentilitas . ib. 

18.  Guardianship  ........  ib. 

19.  The  ancient  Right  of  Inheritance  ....  84 

20.  The  Praetorian  Law  of  Inheritance  ....  85 


JUDICIA  PRIVATA. 

§21.  Legis  Actiones  ..... 

22.  Formulae  Actionum 

23.  Subject  continued.  Proceedings  in  Jure 

24.  Proceedings  in  Judicio 

25.  The  Interdicta  of  the  Praetor 

JUDICIA  FUBLICA. 

§26.  Criminal  Proceedings 

27.  Form  of  Criminal  Proceedings 

28.  Crimes 

29.  Punishments  ..... 

30.  Intercourse  with  foreign  nations — Ambassadors 

31.  Declaration  of  War,  and  War 

B.  FINANCE. 

§1.  Public  Expenditure 96 

2.  Resources  of  the  State  in  the  most  ancient  times  . ib. 

3.  Taxes  paid  by  Roman  Citizens  . . . . . 97 

4.  Extraordinary  Revenue  derived  from  Wars  and  Con- 

quests .........  ib. 

5.  Standing  Revenue  from  Conquered  Countries  . . 98 

6.  Farming  of  the  Revenue.  Publicani  . . . : 99 

7.  Abolition  of  the  Taxes  and  Contributions  of  Roman 

Citizens  ........  ib. 

8.  Administration  of  the  Finances  ....  100 

9.  The  Finances  under  the  Emperors  ....  ib. 

C.  ADMINISTRATION  OF  AFFAIRS  BEYOND  THE  WALLS  OF  THE  CITY. 

§1.  Administration  in  Italy 101 

2.  The  subject  continued. — Administration  subsequent  to 
the  lex  Julia 


90 

91 

93 

94 
ib. 

95 


86 

87 

88 

89 

90 


102 


CONTENTS.  IX 

PAGE 

§3.  Administration  of  the  Provinces  . . . 102 

4.  The  Governor  and  his  Subordinate  Officers  . . 103 

5.  The  subject  continued  .....  104 

6.  Constitution  and  Condition  of  the  Provinces  . . ib. 

7.  Administration  of  the  Laws  .....  105 

8.  The  more  favoured  Provincial  Cities  . . . . 106 

9.  The  Provinces  under  the  Emperors  ...  ib. 

D.  MILITARY  AFFAIRS. 

§1.  Military  affairs  under  the  Kings  .....  107 

2.  Military  affairs  at  a later  period — Conscription — Term 

of  Service ib. 

3.  The  subject  continued  ......  108 

4.  Pay  of  the  Soldiers  . . . . . . . 109 

5.  Divisions  and  Arms  of  the  Troops  ....  110 

G.  Officers ib. 

7.  Tiie  Allies Ill 

8.  The  Army  on  the  March 112 

9.  Encampments ib. 

10.  Battles  .........  113 

11.  Attack  and  Defence  of  Fortified  Places  . . . 114 

12.  Military  Rewards  and  Punishments  . . . . 115 

13.  Thanksgivings — Triumphs — Memorials  of  Victory  . 116 

14.  Military  Affairs  under  the  Emperors  . . . . 117 

15.  The  Navy 118 


E.  RELIGION. 

§1.  Characteristics  of  the  Roman  Religion 

2.  Relation  of  Religion  to  the  State 

3.  Religious  Sentiments  of  the  Romans 

4.  History  of  Religion 


THE  GODS. 

§5.  Dii  Consentes 121 

6.  The  Dii  Selecti  .......  122 

7.  Other  beings  to  whom  divine  honours  were  paid  . . 123 

8.  Authority  of  the  Senate  in  religious  affairs  . . 125 

9.  Colleges  of  Priests.  Pontifices ib. 

10.  Triumviri  (afterwards  Septemviri)  Epulones  . , 126 

11.  Tire  Augurs  . ......  ib. 


119 
ib. 

120 
ib. 


X 


CONTENTS, 


PAGE 


§12.  Priests  for  the  Sibylline  Books  ....  127 

„ 13.  Fetiales  .........  128 

14.  Haruspices  ........  129 

15.  Rex  Sacrificulus,  Flamines,  Curiones  ....  ib. 

16.  Communities  of  Priests  for  the  service  of  particular 

deities — the  Vestals 130 

17.  Salii,  Luperci,  Fratres  Arvales,  Sodales,  Titii,  Galli  . 131 

18.  Election  of  Priests  .......  132 

19.  Priests’  Servants ib. 

WORSHIP. 

§20.  Worship  in  general  .......  132 

21.  Prayers  and  Vows  .......  133 

22.  Sacrifices  .........  134 

23.  Ploly  Seasons  and  Festivals ib. 

24.  Games  .........  135 

25.  Holy  Places  and  Furniture 137 

26.  Division  of  Time 138 

CIVIL  AND  PRIVATE  LIFE. 

§1.  Private  and  Domestic  Life. — Education  . . . 141 

2.  Names  142 

3.  Sources  of  Income  .......  ib. 

4.  Coinage 143 

5.  Measures  .........  145 

6.  Employment  of  Slaves ib. 

7.  Employments — Games  ......  146 

8.  Buildings  and  Baths 148 

9.  Dress 150 

10.  Meals  .........  152 

11.  Funerals 153 


HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION. 

§1.  Development  of  Roman  Literature  ....  155 

2.  The  Latin  Language  ......  156 

HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

§3.  First  period — from  the  Building  of  Rome  to  the  year 

b.  a.  210 


157 


CONTENTS. 


XI 


PAGB 

§ 4.  Second  period — from  the  year  b.  c.  240,  to  the  time  of 

Cicero  .........  158 

5.  The  subject  continued 159 

6.  Poets 160 

7.  Prose  Writers 1G1 

8.  Third  period. — From  the  time  of  Cicero  to  the  death  of 

Augustus 162 

9.  The  subject  continued 163 

10.  Poets 164 

11.  Prose  Writers 166 

12.  Fourth  Period — from  the  death  of  Augustus  to  the  Anto- 

nines  ........  169 

13.  Poets ib. 

14.  Prose  Writers 170 

15.  Fifth  period— from  the  Antonines  to  the  Fall  of  the 

Western  Empire,  a.  d.  476  ....  172 

16.  Sixth  period 173 

APPENDIX. 

§17.  The  Alphabet,  Writing  Materials,  Books,  Libraries  . 175 

18.  Inscriptions 176 

19.  Codices 177 


Vlt'ESTIONS 


179 


MANUAL 


OF 

HOMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


INTRODUCTION. 

§ 1.  Roman  Antiquities. — Sources  of  Information. 

1.  By  the  term  “Roman  Antiquities,”  we  under- 
stand such  a representation  of  the  public  and  private 
life  of  the  ancient  Romans  as  may  be  collected  from 
the  ancient  authors,  especially  the  historians,  orators, 
and  grammarians,  or  from  insci’iptions,1  coins,  and 
other  remains  of  antiquity.  These  authorities,  how- 
ever, must  be  used  with  caution ; for  the  descriptions 
of  a remote  period  which  we  find  in  historians,  often 
receive  a colouring  from  the  notions  of  more  modern 
days,  whilst  their  judgment  of  times  nearer  to  those  in 
which  they  wrote  is  seldom  impartial.  2.  The  Greek 
historians2  have  also  here  and  there  misunderstood 
Roman  peculiarities,  and  the  orators,  viewing  only  one 
side  of  a question,  or  hurried  away  by  the  torrent  of 
their  declamation,  have  all  more  or  less  failed  to  give 

1 Pelasgian  inscriptions,  written  in  a character  clearly  distinguisha- 
ble from  the  Etruscan,  have  been  discovered  very  recently  at  Agylla  or 
Caere.  And  the  study  and  comparison  of  the  several  Indo-Germanic 
languages  is  making  such  progress,  that  if  any  fortunate  discovery  comes 
in  to  the  aid  of  it,  we  may  hope  to  see  the  mysteiy  of  the  Etruscan  in-, 
scriptions  at  length  unravelled. — Dr.  Arnold. 

2 The  Grecian  writers  from  whose  works  the  most  important  infor 
mation  may  be  derived  respecting  Roman  antiquities,  are,  Polybius,  Dio 
dorus  Siculus,  Dionysius  Halicamassensis,  Plutarch,  Appian,  Dio  Cassius, 
and  the  epitomizer  Zonaras. 


14 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


us  a candid  and  accurate  description  of  events.  Last 
ly,  the  remaining  sources  of  information  are  often  cor 
rupted  or  falsified  by  the  forgeries  of  modern  times. 
Much  critical  circumspection  is  therefore  necessary, 
if  we  desire  to  compile  such  an  account  as  may  safely 
be  relied  on. 

§ 2.  Relation  of  the  subject  to  Political  History. 

3.  The  public  and  private  life  of  Rome  being 
necessarily  presented  to  us  in  its  historical  develop- 
ment, there  will  of  course  be  an  intimate  connexion 
between  the  science  which  we  name  Archaeology  and 
political  history.  It  must,  however,  be  remembered 
that  the  real  objects  of  its  research  are  the  peculiarities 
of  public  and  domestic  life,  external  events  and  remark- 
able personages  being  touched  on  only  in  so  far  as  they 
are  connected  with  those  peculiarities. 


EXTENT  OF  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE —TOPOGRAPHY  OF 
ROME 

§ 1.  Extent  of  the  Roman  Empire 

4.  The  empire  of  Rome  was  at  first  limited  to  the 
city  and  its  immediate  environs,  but  gradually  extended 
itself,  until  (in  the  year  b.  c.  266)  the  whole  of  Italy 
was  subject  to  its  power  ; and  those  great  wars  began, 
which  extended  the  dominion  of  the  Romans  over  such 
portions  of  the  three  quarters  of  the  globe,  as  border 
on  the  Mediterranean  sea  ; so  that  at  the  dissolution 
of  the  republic,  their  empire  was  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Danube  and  the  Rhine,  on  the  south  by  the 
deserts  of  Africa,  on  the  west  by  the  Atlantic,  and  on 
the  east  by  the  river  Euphrates.  Under  the  emperors 
the  limits  were  still  further  enlarged.  In  this  widely 
extended  empire  all  the  administrative  authority  was 
derived  from  Rome ; and  in  the  time  of  the  republic, 
the  actual  participation  of  Roman  citizens  in  the  affairs 
of  government,  was  dependent  on  residence  in  the  cap- 


TOPOGRAPHY  OF  ROME. 


15 


ital,  to  which  all  of  them  were  supposed  to  have  origin- 
ally belonged. 

§ 2.  Topography  of  Rome. 

5.  Rome  lay  on  the  banks  of  the  Tiber,  16,000 
passus  from  the  sea.  It  was  founded  on  the  Palatine 
hill,  but  even  in  the  time  of  the  kings,  the  hills  nearest 
to  the  Palatine  were  taken  in.  Servius  Tullius  is  said 
to  have  surrounded  all  the  seven  with  a wall.  The 
names  of  these  hills  were  the  Palatinus,  Capitolinus, 
Caslius,  Aventinus,  Esquilinus,  Viminalis,  and  Qui- 
rinalis.  The  emperor  Aurelian  fortified  the  city  anew, 
including  within  the  walls  the  collis  hortulorum,  and 
the  Janiculum  and  mons  Vaticanus  on  the  other  side 
of  the  river.  The  pornaerium,  or  open  space  within 
and  without  the  walls  which  marked  the  sacred  bound- 
aries of  the  city,  was  enlarged  by  Servius  Tullius,  at 
a later  period  by  Sulla,  and  frequently  afterwards  by 
the  Emperors.  Servius  Tullius  divided  the  city  into 
four  sections  (tribus),  viz. : Palatina,  Suburrana,  Col- 
lina,  and  Esquilina.  This  number  was  afterwards 
increased  by  Augustus  to  fourteen,  which  were  styled 
regiones.  6.  Originally  the  city  was  simple,  and  even 
when  it  was  rebuilt,  after  being  laid  in  ashes  by  the 
Gauls,  there  was  very  little  attempt  at  decoration.  At 
a later  period,  however,  when  the  citizens  had  become 
richer,  and  an  acquaintance  with  Grecian  taste  and 
the  plundering  of  foreign  works  of  art  had  excited  a 
passion  for  the  beautiful,  attention  began  to  be  paid  to 
embellishment.  In  the  time  of  Augustus  many  impor- 
tant buildings  were  erected  ; and  after  the  conflagra- 
tion in  the  reign  of  Nero  (a.  d.  64),  the  city  was 
restored  on  a scale  of  great  magnificence.  Many 
years  later,  during  the  time  of  the  northern  invasion, 
it  was  so  completely  laid  waste,  that  little  is  now  visi- 
ble beyond  the  ruins  of  its  former  grandeur. 

§ 3.  The  subject  continued. 

7.  Among  the  most  remarkable  objects  may  be 
mentioned  the  portae , (e.  g.  the  Capena,  Collina,  Tri • 


16 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


umphalis ) ; the  pontes  ( Sublicius , Mulvius) ; the  vice 
(e.  g.  the  via  sacra,  via  triumphalis,  via  Appia,  con- 
structed by  Appius  Claudius  Caecus,  b.  c.  312,  from 
Rome  to  Capua,  and  afterwards  continued  to  Brun- 
dusium  ; on  this  road  the  distances  were  marked  by 
stones,  lap  ides,  which  stood  at  intervals  of  1000  pas- 
sus  : and  the  via  Flaminia  over  the  pons  Mulvius, 
leading  to  Etruria)  ; the  fora  (e.  g.  the  forum  Roma- 
num  between  the  Capitoline  and  Palatine  hills) ; the 
campi  (as  the  Campus  Martins,  outside  the  city,  on 
the  banks  of  the  Tiber,  which  originally  belonged  to 
the  Tarquins,  but  was  afterwards  used  for  public  as- 
semblies and  gymnastic  exercises  ; the  temple  (e.  g. 
Jovis  Feretrii,  Statoris,  Capitolini ; Vestce ; cedes 
Concordice,  templum  Apollonis  Palatini,  Pantheon)  ; 
the  theatra  (e.  g.  that  of  Pompey,  which  was  the  first 
theatre  built  of  stone  ; and  that  of  Marcellus ) ; the 
amphitheatra  (as  that  of  Vespasian  or  the  Colosseum ) ; 
the  circi  (as  the  circus  Maximus,  the  circus  Flami- 
nius) ; the  curiae  (e.  g.  the  Flostilia  in  the  forum)  ; the 
porticus,  basilicce,  thermae,  aquceductus  or  aquae,  cloa- 
cae, arcus,  columnae,  &c.  Of  these  edifices  there  still 
remain  some  ruins  and  fragments,  for  instance,  of  the 
Colosseum  or  amphitheatre  of  Vespasian,  of  Hadrian’s 
Mausoleum,  the  columna  rostrata,  Trajan’s  pillar, 
baths,  fragments  of  the  Appian  Way,  &c. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  ROMAN  CONSTITUTION. 

§ 1.  The  Origin  of  Rome. 

8.  Italy,  at  the  period  when  Rome  was  founded, 
was  inhabited  by  a variety  of  races.  Between  the 
right  bank  of  the  Tiber  and  the  Rhaetian  Alps  dwelt 
the  Etrurians,  who  at  a very  early  period  were  a civil- 
ized and  powerful  nation.  Between  the  left  bank  and 
the  Mare  Superum,  were  the  Umbri,  and  lower  down 
some  Sabine  tribes  ; south  of  the  Tiber  were  the  Osci, 
and  at  the  lowest  extremity  of  Italy,  several  Grecian 


HISTORY  OF  THE  ROMAN  CONSTITUTION. 


17 


colonies.  One  of  the  clans  (the  Latini)  settled  on  the 
Tiber,  and  formed  a confederation  of  several  petty 
states.3  From  this  Latin  nation  sprang,  according  to 
ancient  historians,  the  city  of  Rome,  which  was  found- 
ed, as  the  legend  relates,  by  Romulus  on  the  Palatine 
hill  about  the  year  b.  c.  752, 4 or  753.®  9.  The  remote 

history  of  the  city  is  very  obscure,  the  notices  of  the 
old  writers  being  either  fabulous,  or  worthy  of  little 
credit  for  other  reasons,  and  frequently  mere  pictures 
copied  from  the  events  of  more  recent  times.®  Thus 
much,  however,  may  be  collected,  that  the  Roman 
state  was  limited  in  the  beginning  to  the  city  and  its 
immediate  neighbourhood  ; that  originally,  so  far  from 
maintaining  a close  relation  with  the  surrounding 
tribes,  it  occupied  an  independent  and  often  hostile 
position,  and  that  it  rapidly  acquired  internal  strength 
by  means  of  a settled  form  of  government,  borrowed 
in  part  from  the  Etrurian  and  other  neighbouring  states, 
and  an  increased  population  through  immigrations  and 
conquests.  10.  At  an  early  period  we  find  the  Roman 
people  divided  into  three  tribes  ( tribus ) Ramnes  oi 

5 Niebhur  supposes  it  to  have  consisted  of  the  Osci,  Sacrani,  Casci  or 
Prisci,  who  had  overthrown  the  Pelasgian  tribes  on  the  banks  of  the 
Tiber. 

* iEra  Catoniana.  5 6 .Era  Varroniana. 

6 The  only  manner  in  which  we  can  derive  any  historical  results  from 
national  legends,  if  they  have  any  historical  basis  (as  they  have  in  almost 
all  cases),  is  to  receive  them  just  as  they  are  handed  down  to  us  ; not  alter- 
ing or  modifying  them  in  any  way,  but  looking  steadily  at  what  they  state 
as  facts,  as  well  as  what  they  teach  us  by  implication.  It  may,  indeed, 
happen  that  not  one  of  the.facts  stated  is  of  any  historical  value  ; but  we 
frequently  catch  a glimpse  of  the  state  of  things  in  regard  to  the  political, 
social,  and  religious  life  of  the  times  to  which  the  traditions  refer,  and 
this  is  preeminently  the  case  in  early  Roman  history.  It  is,  indeed, 
impossible  either  to  assert  or  to  deny  whether  Romulus  and  Remus  are 
historical  personages  or  not  ; whether  Romulus  actually  did  build  Rome, 
or  whether  he  really  was  the  founder  of  the  institutions  ascribed  to  him  ; 
but  with  regard  to  the  questions  as  to  what  Rome  was  before  the  dawn 
of  her  historical  period,  how  she  grew  out  of  her  cradle,  and  what  her 
polite  and  social  institutions  were,  a great  deal  of  information  may  be 
gleaned  from  the  traditions.  Great  assistance  may  also  be  derived  from 
the  institutions  of  later  times;  for  their  principles  remained,  on  the  whole, 
the  same,  and  the  changes  they  experienced  were  only  the  results  of  a 
natural  progress  and  development. — Schmitz. 


18 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


Ramnenses,  Tides  and  Luceres.  The  origin  of  these 
tribes  was  no  doubt  different,  nor  do  they  seem  to  have 
been  in  the  first  place  united  ; the  last  of  them  espe-  J 
cially  appears  to  have  joined  the  other  two  at  a later  j 
period.  From  this  stock  sprang  in  all  probability  the  | 
first  inhabitants  of  Rome,  with  full  political  rights 
( patricii ),  and  in  close  connexion  with  them  were  a 
number  of  citizens  who  had  been  subjugated  in  ancient 
times  (clientes).  11.  On  the  other  hand  we  find  a j1, 
crowd  of  inferior  citizens  arising  from,  and  gradually  '] 
increased  by,  immigrations  and  conquests  (plebeii). 
These  citizens  were  excluded  from  the  Senate  and 
from  offices  of  state,  had  no  voice  at  the  public  assem- 
blies, and  could  not  even  contract  valid  marriages 
with  the  families  of  Patricians.  This  abrupt  separa-  ' 
tion  of  the  two  estates,  one  of  which  was  entirely  ex-  j 
eluded  from  political  power,  will  be  more  intelligible, 
if  we  regard  the  original  relation  of  the  Patricians  to 
the  Plebeians  as  that  which  the  conqueror  bears  to  the 
conquered,  or  established  citizens  to  foreign  settlers, 
than  if,  with  the  ancient  writers,  we  suppose  the  class  , 
of  Patricians  to  have  originated  in  a mere  capricious 
election. 


§ 2.  Period  of  the  Kings. 

12.  Rome  at  the  beginning  was  governed  by  Kings, 
chosen  for  life,  but  with  limited  powers.  They  were 
the  highest  executive  and  judicial  authority,  were  in- 
trusted with  the  command  of  the  army  in  war,  and 
conducted  part  of  the  public  worship,7  but  shared  their 
power  with  the  Senate  or  chosen  representatives  of 
the  Patrician  order  (Senattis),  and  the  General  Assem- 
bly of  the  people  ( Comida  curiata).  The  history  of 
these  kings,  as  it  has  been  handed  down  to  us  by 
Roman  authors,  contains,  amicist  all  its  obscurity  and 
poetical  embellishments,  many  actual  facts,  and  exhibits 
the  existence,  at  an  early  period,  of  that  peculiar  char- 

7 “ The  King  . . . was  the  priest  who  offered  sacrifices  for  the  nation.*' 
(Niebuhr.) 


HISTORY  OF  THE  ROMAN  CONSTITUTION. 


19 


acter,  which  was  alwa3’s  borne  by  the  Roman  people.8 
13.  Thus  we  already  discover  a talent  for  military  com- 
mand, and  an  eager  desire  of  aggrandizement  through 
the  annihilation  of  conquered  nations,  or  their  incor- 
poration, as  tributaries,  into  the  Roman  empire,  or 
through  the  establishment  of  colonies  (Romulus,  Tul- 
lus  Hostilius,  Ancus,  the  Tarquins,  Servius  Tullius, 
the  military  division  of  the  people),  a disposition  to 
settle  the  mutual  relations  of  citizens  by  laws  and 
established  regulations  (Romulus,  Servius  Tullius), 
respect  for  property,  and  political  regard  to  a pecu- 
niary qualification  (Servius  Tullius) ; reverence  for 
religion,  and  a recognition  of  its  influence  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  civil  order  (Numa  Pompilius,  Ancus  Mar- 
tius  ; a taste  for  handsome  and  durable  public  buildings, 
in  anticipation,  as  it  were,  of  the  future  greatness  of 
their  city  (the  Tarquins).  14.  The  most  important 
of  all  their  political  changes  under  the  Kings,  was  the 
division  by  Servius  Tullius  of  the  citizens,  according 
to  their  property,  into  classes  and  centuries  ( Comitia 
centuriata),  by  means  of  which  the  first  step  was 
taken  towards  filling  up  the  gulf  between  the  two 
orders  of  Roman  citizens,  and  some  political  considera- 
tion given  to  the  Plebeians  in  a constitution,  which 
provided  that  the  burdens  of  war  and  taxation  should 
be  shared  amongst  the  wealthier  citizens,  but  accorded 
to  them  at  the  same  time  the  chief  influence  in  all 
affairs  of  government. 

, § 3.  From  the  beginning  of  the  Republic  to  the 
Decemviri. 

15.  sIn  the  year  b.  c.  509,  the  monarchy  was  ex- 

8 Cf.  Arnold’s  Hist,  of  Home,  Appleton’s  Am.  Edit.  vol.  i.  pp.  38-74 ; 

Schmitz,  pp.  31-80.  % 

9 We  are  told  that  within  ten  years  of  the  first  institution  of  the  Con- 
suls, the  burghers  found  it  necessary  to  create  a single  magistrate  with 
powers  still  more  absolute,  who  was  to  exercise  the  full  sovereignty  of  a 
king,  and  even  without  that  single  check  to  which  the  kings  of  Rome  had 
been  subjected.  The  Master  of  the  people,  that  is,  of  the  burghers,  or,  as 
he  was  otherwise  called,  the  Dictator,  was  appointed,  it  is  true,  for  six 


20 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


changed  for  a republican  constitution  under  the  two 
Consuls,  chosen  yearly.  This  transfer  of  the  limited 
kingly  power  to  the  Consuls,  can  hardly  be  considered 
a total  change  in  the  form  of  the  constitution.  It  was, 
however,  only  natural  that  the  Senate  as  a permanent 
body  (whereas  the  Consuls  were  perpetually  changed), 
and  the  Comitia  centuriata,  which  now  became  annual 
Assemblies  for  the  election  of  the  Consuls,  should 
gradually  become  more  and  more  influential.  The 
sharp  distinction  of  ranks  still  continued.  The  people, 
excluded  from  the  enjoyment  of  the  ager  public  us  (i.  e. 
of  the  lands  obtained  by  conquest,  which  might  be 
granted  by  the  state  to  individuals  in  return  for  a cer- 
tain payment),  and  forced  to  content  itself  with  insig- 
nificant allotments,  became  more  and  more  indebted 
to  the  rich  Patricians.  16.  The  burden,  however,  at 
last  became  too  heavy  for  the  Plebeians,  whose  number 
was  steadily  increasing,  whilst  the  exclusive  class  of 
Patricians  gradually  diminished ; and  we  find  them 
engaged  in  contests  with  the  Patricians,  through  which, 
in  after  years,  amidst  their  continual  wars  with  neigh- 
bouring nations,  the  constitution  of  Rome  was  gradu- 
ally developed.  The  most  important  step  towards 


months  only;  and  therefore  liable,  like  the  Consuls,  to  be  arraigned  after 
the  expiration  of  his  office,  for  any  acts  of  tyranny  which  he  might  have 
committed  during  its  continuance.  But  whilst  he  retained  his  office  he 
was  as  absolute  within  the  walls  of  the  city,  as  the  Consuls  were  without 
them  ; neither  commoners  nor  burghers  had  any  right  to  appeal  from  his 
sentence,  although  the  latter  had  enjoyed  this  protection  in  the  times  of 
the  monarchy.  This  last  circumstance  seems  to  prove  that  the  original 
appointment  of  the  Dictator  was  a measure  of  precaution  against  a party 
among  the  burghers  themselves,  rather  than  against  the  commons ; and 
gives  a probability  to  that  tradition  which  Livy  slighted,  namely,  that  the 
Consuls,  who  were  for  the  first  time  superseded  by  “ the  Master  of  the 
burghers,”  were  inclined  to  favour  the  return  of  the  exiled  king.  It  is 
not  likely  that  they  were  the  only  Romans  so  disposed : and  if  a strong 
minority  amongst  the  burghers  themselves,  and  probably  a large  portion 
of  the  commons,  were  known  to  favour  the  restoration  of  the  old  govern- 
ment, it  is  very  intelligible  that  the  majority  of  the  burghers  should  have 
resolved  to  strengthen  the  actual  government,  and  to  appoint  an  officer 
who  might  summarily  punish  all  conspirators  of  whatever  rank,  whether 
belonging  to  the  commons  or  to  the  burghers. — Arnold’s  Hist,  of  Rome 
vol.  i.  pp.  98,  99. 


HISTORY  OF  'i’HE  ROMAN  CONSTITUTION. 


21 


obtaining  independence  for  the  Plebeians,  who  hitherto 
had  wanted  a legal  rallying  point,  was  the  establish- 
ment, after  a severe  struggle,  of  a popular  magistracy 
(Tribunes  of  the  People  and  Plebeian  bEdiles)  in  the 
year  b.  c.  494.  17.  At  first  the  Tribunes  had  merely 

a veto  on  questions  which  affected  the  people ; but 
they  soon  took  occasion  (b.  c.  491),  from  the  proceed- 
ings in  the  case  of  Coriolanus,  to  assemble  the  people 
tributim  (i.  e.  in  accordance  with  the  division  of  Ser- 
vius  Tullius),  for  the  purpose  of  trying  their  enemies; 
and  in  these  Comitia,  where  they  were  subject  neither 
to  the  rules  of  the  Senate  nor  to  the  authority  of  the 
Augurs,  they  soon  acquired  influence  over  the  affairs 
of  the  state,  especially  after  the  passing  of  a law  pro- 
posed by  the  tribune  Volero  Publilius  (b.  c.  471),  by 
which  it  was  provided  that  the  election  of  Plebeian 
magistrates  should  take  place  in  the  Comitia  tributa, 
an  arrangement  which  effectually  protected  the  Plebe- 
ians from  the  interference  of  Patricians  in  their  choice 
of  officers.  18.  Notwithstanding  these  advances,  how- 
ever, the  Patricians  continued  to  possess  a powerful 
influence,  founded  on  religion  ; and  this  influence  they 
especially  exerted  at  the  Comitia  curiata,  which  were 
now  held  for  the  purpose  of  confirming  by  the  auspices 
the  acts  and  elections  of  the  Comitia  centuriata,  and 
of  giving  the  imperium  to  magistrates.  Indeed,  in  the 
Comitia  centuriata  themselves,  the  influence  of  the 
Patricians  was  exerted  by  means  of  the  auspices,  the 
Patrician  consul  who  presided  over  the  Assembly, 
and  their  own  clients. 

§ 4.  From  the  Decemviri  to  the  passing  of  the  Lici- 
nian  Law. 

19.  The  popular  power  assumed  a more  decided 
form,  and  resisted  more  vigorously  the  encroachments 
of  the  government  after  the  suppression »(b.  c.  449)  of 
the  Decemvirate,1  an  office  which  had  been  created 
provisionally  (the  functions  of  the  other  offices  of  state 

1 Cf.  Arnold,  Hist,  of  Rome,  vol.  i.  p.  161,  &.C. 


22 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANT']  Q.UITIES. 


being  meanwhile  suspended)  for  the  purpose  of  amal- 
gamating the  various  elements  of  the  Roman  constitu- 
tion by  means  of  a comprehensive  and  impartial  code 
of  laws.  The  strength  of  the  people,  which  had  been 
set  in  motion  for  the  purpose  of  overthrowing  the  De- 
cern virate,  now  exerted  itself  very  energetically  for 
the  establishment  of  independence.  20.  The  power 
of  the  Comitia  centuriata,  which  possessed  the  su- 
preme legislative  authority  and  right  of  confirming 
elections,  began  to  be  claimed  by  the  Comitia  tributa, 
as  soon  as  the  decrees  of  the  Plebs  had  acquired  a 
legislative  force  (subject,  probably,  to  certain  condi- 
tions) by  the  lex  Valeria  Horatia  (b.  c.  449),  subse- 
quently defined  and  confirmed  by  other  enactments. 
A still  more  important  step  towards  the  amalgamation 
of  the  different  estates  was  made  by  the  lex  Canuleja 
(b.  c.  445),  which  authorized  the  connubium,  or  cele- 
bration of  marriages,  between  Patricians  and  Plebe- 
ians. 21.  A contemporaneous  attempt  on  the  part  of 
the  Plebeians  to  thro^v  open  the  Consulship  to  their 
order,  which  was  vehemently  resisted  by  the  Patri- 
cians, led  to  the  establishment  of  a new  office  (the 
three  Tribuni  militum  consulari  potestate),  to  which 
Plebeians  were  eligible,  and  which  seems  to  have 
shared  the  duties  of  the  Consulate  with  another  new 
office,  exclusively  Patrician,  termed  the  Censorship. 
For  many  years  there  seems  to  have  been  an  alterna- 
tion of  Consuls  and  Tribuni  militum ; but  the  modera- 
tion of  the  Plebeians,  their  hereditary  respect  for  the 
Patricians,  and  dependence  on  them  for  pecuniary 
assistance,  for  a long  time  led  them  to  choose  those 
officers  almost  entirely  from  the  Patrician  body.  The 
strenuous  opposition  of  the  Patricians  could,  however, 
only  postpone,  not  prevent,  the  establishment  of  that 
balance  of  power  which  the  times  required. 

§ 5.  From  the  passing  of  the  L.cinian  Law  (b.  c.  376) 
to  the  Gracchi. 

22.  Under  the  pressure  of  that  heavy  yoke  which 
had  bowed  down  the  Plebeians  ever  since  the  Gallic 


HISTORY  OF  THE  ROMAN  CONSTITUTION. 


23 


war,  a law  ( lex  Licinia ) was  passed,  which  not  only- 
relieved  them  from  some  of  their  domestic  burdens, 
but  rendered  them  eligible  (o  one  of  the  two  Consul- 
ships. On  the  other  hand,  two  new  offices  were  cre- 
ated ; the  Prsetorship,  which  was  confined  to  the  Pa- 
tricians, and  the  Curule  JSdileship,  which  seems  from 
the  commencement  to  have  been  filled  alternately  by 
Patricians  and  Plebeians.  The  equalization  of  ranks 
now  proceeded  rapidly,  but  in  such  a manner  that  at 
first  the  division  of  influences  was  distinct  and  fair. 
After  b.  c.  342  we  hear  no  more  of  two  Patrician  Con- 
suls. By  degrees  the  Dictatorship,  Censorship,  and 
Preetorship,  and  finally  the  priesthoods  ( lex  Ogulnia 
b.  c.  300)  were  thrown  open  to  the  Plebeians.  By  the 
Publilian  law,  the  legislatorial  authority  given  to  the 
people  by  the  Valerian  was  extended,  and  finally  made 
independent  of  the  Senate  by  the  lex  Hortensia  (b.  c. 
286).  23.  From  this  period,  we  must  date  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  Patrician  order  as  a political  body,  and  the 
change  in  all  essential  particulars  of  the  old  aristocratic 
form  of  government,  which  could  always  reckon  on  the 
support  of  the  Senate.  The  Comitia  centuriata  still 
retained  their  power  ; but  the  Comitia  curiata  became 
a mere  form  without  influence  or  importance.  As  the 
old  Patrician  families  became  extinct,  or  went  over  to 
the  Plebeians,  there  gradually  arose  on  the  ruins  of 
this  order  a new  official  nobility,  composed  of  Patri- 
cian and  Plebeian  families,  and  founded  on  descent 
from  persons  who  had  filled  the  Curule  offices  (the 
Consulship,  Pnetorship,  and  iEdileship).  24.  This 
order  ( nobilitas ) gradually  contracted  itself  by  the  exr 
elusion  of  others  from  the  higher  offices,  which  was 
the  more  easy,  as  the  great  expense  of  the  rEdileship 
rendered  them  accessible  to  very  few,  although  this 
afterwards  became  a means  of  aggrandizing  the  nobi- 
lity  through  the  administration  of  provinces,  and  the 
acquisition  of  booty.  The  government,  nevertheless, 
went  on  steadily  and  quietly,  on  the  whole,  until  the 
third  Punic  war  (b.  c.  149).  The  right  of  legislation,  and 
of  electing  magistrates,  were  in  the  hands  of  the  people, 


24 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


who  also  conducted  the  judicia  publicu  m the  Comitia, 
or  committed  the  management  of  them  to  the  Senate 
and  magistrates.  The  Senate  had  the  administrative 
authority,  and  the  superintendence  of  the  revenue, 
and  the  judges  were  chosen  from  its  members.  The 
great  exertions  rendered  necessary  by  the  wars  with 
Pyrrhus,  the  Carthaginians,  Illyrians,  Antiochus  the 
great,  and  Perseus,  had  for  their  general  result  the 
establishment  of  unity  and  strength  in  the  executive 
power. 

§ 6.  From  the  Gracchi  to  the  Social  war. 

25.  When,  however,  after  the  fall  of  Carthage,  the 
power  of  Rome  was  firmly  established,  a certain  degree 
of  laxity  manifested  itself  both  in  public  and  private 
life.  Foreign  manners  and  their  attendant  luxury 
found  a ready  entrance  ; and  to  the  lust  of  conquest 
there  were  now  added  the  appetite  for  plunder  and 
capricious  treatment  of  the  conquered.  By  degrees 
the  republican  respect  for  the  state  and  its  sanctity 
disappeared,  and  selfishness  became  every  where  pre- 
dominant. This  was  especially  manifest  in  the  violent 
struggle  which  now  took  place  between  the  aristocracy 
( optimates ) and  the  popular  party  { populares ).2  On 

2 During  the  long  internal  peace  which  Rome  had  enjoyed,  the  power 
of  the  Senate  became  so  firmly  established  and  so  vast,  that  the  assemblies 
of  the  people,  in  many  respects,  were  little  more  than  a tool  in  the  hands 
of  the  aristocracy  or  the  optimates.  The  elections  of  the  high  magistrates 
were  any  thing  but  free,  since  the  illustrious  families  were  in  the  exclusive 
possession  of  the  most  important  and  lucrative  offices.  These  optimates, 
as  they  were  called,  accumulated  their  wealth  in  the  provinces,  and  at 
home  amused  and  corrupted  the  people  by  the  distribution  of  money  oi 
food,  by  games,  spectacles,  and  bribes.  In  purchasing  the  estates  of  the 
small  landed  proprietors,  to  whom  the  republic  originally  owed  her  great- 
ness, they  had  acquired  immense  tracts  of  land,  which  were  cultivated  by 
bands  of  slaves  ; whilst  a large  class  of  reduced  freemen,  without  a home 
or  bread,  were  wandering  about  in  the  country  with  their  wives  and 
children,  not  having  a foot  of  land  which  they  could  claim  as  their  own, 
though  they  were  told  that  they  were  the  lords  of  the  earth.  At  Rome 
itself  things  were  not  better ; a numerous  populace  had  gradually  been 
formed,  which,  without  property  or  industry,  threatened  sooner  or  later 
to  become  most  dangerous  to  the  safety  of  the  state,  as  they  might  be 
used,  by  any  one  who  chose  to  buy  them,  fot  the  worst  purposes.  Many 


HISTORY  OF  THE  ROMAN  CONSTITUTION. 


25 


the  one  hand,  the  Senate  and  nobles  formed  a power- 
ful faction,  in  whose  hands  the  Consulship  remained, 
and  which  was,  in  part,  supported  by  the  Equites  who 
were  dependent  upon  it.  These  Equites  or  Knights 
formed  a class  which  gradually  lost  its  original  military 
character,  and  acquired  great  wealth  by  farming  the 
public  revenue.  As  a conservative  party,  this  body 
supported  the  ancient  order  of  things,  and  the  dignity 
of  the  Senate ; but,  at  the  same  time,  formed  an  op- 
pressive aristocracy,  who,  by  appropriating  to  them- 
selves the  ager  publicus  after  supplanting  the  small 
proprietors,  acquired  enormous  estates  ; the  manage- 
ment of  which  they  committed  to  slaves,  whilst  the 
impoverished  peasants  were  forced  to  remove  to  Rome, 
thus  increasing  the  number  of  discontented  citizens. 
These  proceedings  soon  caused  a reaction  on  the  part 
of  the  people.  27.  The  laws  proposed  by  the  Trib- 
unes, T.  Gracchus  (b.  c.  133)  and  C.  Gracchus  (b.  c. 
121),  especially  the  lex  agraria,  a revival  of  the  Lici- 
nian  law  (which  provided  that  no  one  should  possess 
more  than  five  hundred  jugera  of  the  ager  publicus 
for  himself,  and  the  same  quantity  for  two  sons,  and 
that  the  remainder  should  be  divided  among  the  poor 
citizens),  paved  the  way,  it  is  true,  for  the  ruin  of  the 
nobles,  without,  however,  for  the  present,  securing  any 
advantage  to  the  people : but  a democratic  reaction 
had  commenced,  and  one  result  of  this  was  the  with- 
drawal of  the  judicial  authority  from  the  Senate,  and 
the  establishment  of  the  Knights  as  a separate  and 
independent  estate.  It  was  not  until  the  Jugurthine 
war  (b.  c.  111-106),  when  the  moral  corruption  and- 
particularly  the  gross  venality  of  the  nobility  was  dis- 
played in  the  strongest  light,  that  they  suffered  an 
important  defeat  by  the  passing  of  a law  which  pro- 
vided that  a rigid  inquiry  should  be  instituted  into  the 
conduct  of  magistrates  accused  of  bribery,  and  by  the 


undoubtedly  saw  the  abyss  at  the  verge  of  which  the  republic  had  arrived, 
but  no  one  had  the  courage  to  interfere. — Schmitz,  Hist,  of  Rome 
c.  xxiv. 


2 


26 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


election  of  C.  Marius,  a novus  homo  (56),  to  the  Con 
sulship. 

§ 7.  From  the  Social  war  to  the  extinction  of  the 
Republic. 

28.  Soon  after  this  the  Social  war  or  war  of  the 
allied  states  broke  out  (a.  c.  91),  by  which  the  Latin 
and  Italian  people  extorted  the  recognition  of  their 
rights  as  citizens,  which  the  Gracchi  had  before  en- 
deavoured to  obtain  for  them,  in  order  to  strengthen 
the  popular  cause  by  the  addition  of  a body  of  free  and 
independent  burghers.  This  crowd  of  citizens,  who 
were  received  into  the  state  without  the  adoption  of  a 
representative  constitution,  or  any  other  correspondent 
change  in  the  form  of  government,  was  productive  of 
great  confusion.  The  better  portion  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Italy,  who  were  bound  to  their  homes  by  property 
and  other  interests,  were  of  course  excluded  from 
active  participation  in  the  affairs  of  government.  On 
the  other  hand,  a multitude  of  poor  and  lawless  men, 
attracted  by  the  distribution  of  public  largesses  and 
private  gifts,  were  drawn  together  from  all  quarters, 
and  formed  at  Rome,  the  central  point  of  government, 
a mass  which  readily  joined  the  party  of  those  who 
were  struggling  to  raise  themselves  at  the  expense  of 
the  state.  29.  A reaction  in  favour  of  the  nobles  was 
brought  about,  it  is  true,  by  Sulla  (b.  c.  81),  who  re- 
stricted the  power  of  the  tribunals,  restored  the  judicia 
to  the  Senate,  and  endeavoured  to  re-establish  the 
ancient  constitution.  But  this  reaction  produced  little 
real  effect  on  the  position  of  affairs.  On  the  othei 
hand,  an  example  was  for  the  first  time  afforded  of  a 
commander-in-chief  using  his  delegated  authority  for 
private  ends,  and  the  way  paved  for  a military  despot- 
ism and  a civil  war.  In  the  Consulship  of  Crassus  and 
Pompey  (b.  c.  70),  the  people  recovered  their  rights, 
but  became  a mere  tool  in  the  hands  of  great  and  tal- 
ented leaders,  who  acquired  an  overwhelming  influence 
by  the  favour  of  the  Commons,  military  power,  combi 


INHABITANTS  OF  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE. 


21 


:ation,  and  wealth,  whilst  the  authority  of  the  Senate 
tecame  more  and  more  contemptible  (Pompey,  Caesar 
Crassus).  30.  The  result  of  their  disputes  with  one 
another,  was  the  establishment  of  Caesar  at  the  head 
of  the  government,  and  his  appropriation  to  himself 
of  all  the  chief  offices,  and  finally  of  a perpetual  Dicta- 
torship (b.  c.  46.)  His  death,  indeed,  was  the  effect 
of  a republican  movement,  but  the  republican  spirit 
had  ceased  to  exist  in  the  body  of  the  people.  A new 
combination  was  now  formed  between  Antony,  Lepi- 
dus,  and  Octavian,  which  ended  in  the  assumption  of 
absolute  authority  bjr  Octavian  (b.  c.  33),  who,  under 
the  title  of  Princeps,  concentrated  all  the  power  of 
the  state  in  his  own  person  ; but,  in  consideration  of 
the  respect  with  which  the  Romans  regarded  ancient 
forms,  allowed  the  Senate  and  most  of  the  more  im- 
portant offices  to  exist  nominally.  31.  For  the  same 
reason  under  the  succeeding  Emperors  ( principes , im- 
peratores , Cccsares,  Augusti),  the  greater  part  of  these 
forms  were  still  retained,  although  the  people  were 
excluded  from  any  immediate  share  in  the  government, 
until,  at  length,  even  this  shadow  of  ancient  Rome 
vanished  before  a succession  of  innovations,  such  as 
the  partition  of  the  empire,  the  change  in  the  consti- 
tution which  began  in  the  reign  of  Diocletian  (a.  d. 
284-303),  the  removal  of  the  seat  of  government  to 
Constantinople,  and  the  establishment  of  Christianity 
as  the  national  religion  by  Constantine  (a.  d.  323.) 


INHABITANTS  OF  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE. 

§ 1.  Classification. 

32.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Roman  empire  were 
partly  free  and  partly  slaves.  The  freemen  were 
either  cives  ( populus  Romanus,  populus  Romanus 
Quiritium),  or  peregrini,  who  in  Cicero’s  time,  were 
comprehended  under  the  title  extercc  nationes,  or  trib- 
utary states  without  the  privileges  of  Roman  citizen- 
ship. 


28 


MANUAL  OP  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES’* 


A.  Of  the  Cives  and  Civitas. 

§ 2.  Nature  of  the  Rights  of  Citizenship. 

33.  The  word  civitas  signifies  both  the  civic  com- 
munity, and  the  rights  enjoyed  by  its  members  in  con- 
sequence of  their  citizenship.  Rome  was  originally 
surrounded  by  other  nations,  partly  of  the  same  race, 
but  never  admitted  to  a more  intimate  connexion.  Even 
in  later  times,  when  the  government  joined  the  Latin 
confederation,  Rome  never  considered  herself  as  one 
of  the  Latin  states,  but  maintained  her  independence 
in  opposition  to  them  all,  and  in  a short  time  assumed 
the  character  of  their  mistress.  In  consequence  of  this 
relation  the  civitas  soon  became  a term  of  distinction, 
both  in  public  and  private  life,  between  the  burghers 
and  strangers  ( peregrini , originally  hostes).  But  even 
among  the  citizens  themselves  there  existed  almost  as 
marked  a distinction  in  the  exclusion  of  an  entire  class 
(the  Pleheii)  from  the  most  important  rights.  By  de- 
grees, however,  this  disproportion  was  equalized,  and 
the  same  privileges  and  responsibilities  became  the 
birthright  of  all  (15-17). 

§ 3.  Same  subject  continued. 

34.  These  responsibilities  consisted  in  the  payment 
of  a property  tax,  and  the  liability  to  serve  in  the  army. 
The  most  important  civil  privileges  in  public  life  were 
the  right  of  voting  on  questions  of  state  in  the  Comitia, 
jus  suffragii,  which  could  only  be  exercised  personally 
at  Rome,  and  the  right  of  being  invested  with  the 
public  magistracies,  jus  honorum.  The  person  of  the 
Roman  citizen  was  also  protected  by  the  law  in  vari- 
ous ways.  Soon  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Kings,  the 
right  of  provocatio,  or  appeal  to  the  people  against  the 
oppression  of  the  higher  orders,  was  given  by  the  law 
of  Valerius  Publicola.  This  law  was  afterwards  fre- 
quently revived  and  confirmed.  By  subsequent  enact- 
ments corporal  punishment  was  abolished,  and  crimi- 
nals permitted  to  choose  banishment  instead  of  death. 


INHABITANTS  OF  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE. 


29 


S5.  Viewed  in  its  relation  to  private  rights,  the  civitas 
may  be  considered  partly  as  a qualification  for  the 
enjoyment  of  all  the  privileges  of  Roman  citizenship  ; 
partly  as  connubium,  or  the  right  of  contracting  mar- 
riages according  to  the  Roman  law ; and  partly  as 
commercium,  or  the  privilege  of  acquiring,  possessing 
and  employing  property  according  to  the  regulations 
of  the  Roman  code.  As  the  power  of  the  state  in- 

eased,  the  Roman  citizens  obtained  other  privileges 

the  expense  of  the  vanquished.  Thus,  from  the 
:onquest  of  Macedonia  (b.  c.  168),  until  the  Consulship 
of  Hirtius  and  Pansa  (b.  c.  43),  they  were  entirely 
exempt  from  the  payment  of  taxes.  The  citizens,  in 
fact,  were  highly  favoured  in  all  respects  at  the  cost 
of  the  oppressed  provincials.  Every  Roman  citizen 
was  a member  of  one  of  the  thirty-five  tribus , and  his 
name  enrolled  in  the  public  register  (tabula,  censorum), 
into  which  unqualified  persons  sometimes  attempted  to 
intrude  themselves  surreptitiously.  The  idea  of  the 
aggregate  rights  of  a Roman  citizen  is  expressed  by 
the  term  caput. 

§ 4.  Extent  and  increase  of  the  Civic  Community. 

36.  From  a small  beginning,  the  civic  community 
of  Rome  was  gradually  increased  by  conquests.  The 
inhabitants  of  a conquered  territory  were,  in  the  earli- 
est times,  partly  transferred  to  Rome,  partly  permitted 
to  reside  in  their  own  cities,  but,  in  both  cases,  under 
less  favourable  conditions  than  the  Roman  citizens. 
They  obtained  what  was  called  civitas  sine  sujfragio, 
by  which  they  were  distinctly  separated  from  other 
neighbouring  nations,  subjected  to  the  Roman  laws, 
and  compelled  to  pay  taxes  and  serve  in  the  army, 
without  having  any  share  in  the  government.  By 
degrees,  however,  they  acquired  full  civic  rights,  prin- 
cipally before  the  Social  war  (28).  After  this  war, 
by  the  lex  Julia  (b.  c.  90),  the  Latin  and  Italian  tribes, 
vho  had  been  previously  socii,  were  gradually  admit- 
ted to  the  freedom  of  the  city ; and  from  this  period, 


so 


MANUAL  OF  HOMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


the  privilege  of  citizenship  was  conferred  with  no 
sparing  hand,  especially  after  the  extinction  of  the 
republic.  Julius  Caesar  granted  it  to  Gallia  Cisal- 
plna,  the  Emperor  Claudius  sold  it  for  money,  and 
finally  Caracalla  bestowed  it  as  a gift  on  all  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  Roman  empire. 

§ 5.  Mode  in  which  the  rights  of  citizenship  were 
acquired  and  lost. 

37.  The  privilege  of  citizenship  was  acquired  by 
birth,  by  incorporation  according  to  the  provisions  of 
some  law  (the  abovenamed  lex  Julia,  for  instance 
(36),  or  by  emancipation  (manumissio) . It  was  lost 
by  becoming  a citizen  of  another  state,  by  imprison- 
ment, a public  sentence  of  condemnation,  proscription, 
and  in  the  time  of  the  Emperors  by  deportation.  The 
loss  or  restriction  of  civic  rights  was  termed  deminutio 
capitis ; of  which  the  highest  degree  consisted  in  the 
loss  both  of  personal  freedom  and  civil  privileges  : a 
less  severe  sort  was  the  loss  of  citizenship  only ; and 
the  mildest  of  all  was  simply  the  relinquishment  of 
certain  personal  rights  by  a change  of  personal  condi- 
tion, for  instance,  by  adoption. 

§ 6.  Various  classes  of  citizens. 

38.  There  were  several  distinctions  among  the  Ro- 
man citizens,  arising  from  birth,  property,  place  of 
habitation,  and  other  accidents.  Their  effect,  in  a po- 
litical point  of  view,  was  various  at  different  times. 
Some  of  them  gradually  disappeared  virtually,  if  not  in 
name,  whilst  new  ones  were  created.  The  ancient 
division  into  tribes  (tribus),  with  the  still  older  relation 
of  patron  and  client,  is  soon  lost  in  the  obscurity  of 
early  history.  The  classification  into  Curiae,  and  the 
distinction  between  Patricians  and  Plebeians  were  of 
longer  continuance,  but  gradually  lost  their  political 
importance.  On  the  other  hand,  the  division  into 
classes,  centuries,  and  tribus,  was  much  more  perma- 


INHABITANTS  OF  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE. 


Si 


nent.  In  the  course  of  time,  a distinction  was  intro- 
duced between  nobiles  and  ignobiles ; and  the  Eques- 
trian Order  ( equites ) appeared  as  a separate  estate 
(or do)  below  but  next  to  the  Senate.  There  were  also 
distinctions  between  the  inhabitants  of  Rome  and  the 
citizens  created  by  the  extension  of  the  empire,  or  the 
establishment  of  colonies,  municipalities,  and  prefec- 
tures ; and  others  which  arose  from  birth,  and  the  dif- 
ferent privileges  enjoyed  by  free-born  persons,  and 
those  who  were  admitted  to  freedom. 

§ 7.  The  ancient  tribus  and  curias. 

39.  According  to  the  testimony,  of  historians, 
Romulus  divided  the  people  into  three  tribus,  Ramnes 
or  Ramnenses,  Tides,  and  LucSres ; a classification 
which  seems  to  indicate  the  different  tribes,  by  the 
union  of  which  the  Roman  state  was  formed.  The 
union  of  these  tribes,  and  their  extension,  which  is 
generally  ascribed  to  L.  Tarquinius  Priscus,  stand  in 
close  connexion  with  the  increase  in  the  number  of 
Patrician  citizens,  and  augmentation  of  the  oenate 
(42).  The  three  tribus  were  divided  into  thirty  curies , 
connected  with  one  another  politically  and  religiously. 
Each  of  these  had  its  curio,  and  the  united  body  a 
curio  maximus.  The  curiae  assembled  in  the  Comida 
curiata,  the  most  ancient  political  assembly ; but  the 
whole  institution,  which  wras  essentially  patrician,  lost 
its  importance,  when  the  Patricians  wrere  deprived  of 
their  privileges. 

§ 8.  Patroni  and  Clientes. 

40.  We  are  told  by  ancient  writers,  that  Romulus 
established  an  intimate  connexion  between  Patricians 
and  Plebeians,  as  the  protectors  and  protected.  The 
Patron  was  obliged  to  defend  his  Client  in  courts  of 
justice,  and  elsewhere,  whilst  the  latter,  on  his  part, 
was  compelled  to  contribute  towards  the  portion  of  Ins 
F itron’s  daughter,  and  pay  his  fines  and  ransom.  They 


32 


manual  of  roman  antiquities. 


were  not  allowed  to  prosecute  or  bear  witness  against 
each  other.  The  connexion  between  Patron  and  Cli- 
ent was  hereditary.  It  must  be  observed,  that  the 
Clients  wei'e,  however,  in  some  respects,  not  only  dis- 
tinct from,  but  even  opposed  to  the  Plebeians ; we 
may,  therefore,  suppose  that  they  were  people  subju- 
gated at  an  early  period,  who  were  admitted  to  a more 
intimate,  although  subordinate  connexion  with  the  Pa- 
tricians, from  which  the  plebs,  or  crowd  of  citizens, 
introduced  by  more  recent  conquests,  were  excluded. 
41.  The  clientela  after  a time  ceased  to  exist  as  an  in- 
stitution purely  patrician,  but  was  retained  as  a con- 
nexion between  the  rich  and  poor,  the  powerful  ana 
the  feeble  ; the  duties  on  the  part  of  the  Client  being  to 
wait  on  the  Patron  every  morning,  to  accompany  him 
to  the  forum  and  the  campus , to  support  him  by  voting 
at  the  Comitia,  and  so  forth  ; on  that  of  the  Patron,  to 
render  pecuniary  and  other,  assistance.  Entire  nations 
among  the  socii  stood  in  the  relation  of  clients  to  pow- 
erful Roman  families  (e.  g.  the  Allobroges  to  the  Fabii), 
to  whom  they  applied  in  all  difficulties.  The  same 
connexion  existed  also  between  emancipated  slaves 
and  their  former  masters. 

§ 9.  Patricii  and  Plebeii. 

42.  Livy  and  Dionysius  inform  us,  that  the  Pa- 
tricians were  the  descendants  of  those  Senators  who 
were  appointed  by  Romulus,  and  whose  number  was 
augmented  in  the  following  reigns.  From  what  we 
have  already  said,  however,  it  would  rather  appear  that 
they  were  original  citizens,  who  enjoyed  full  privileges, 
and  were  divided  into  curice  and  gentes,  or  large  houses 
united  by  the  bands  of  religious  and  family  connexion. 
Thus  the  Senate  would  seem  to  be  a selection  from 
these  citizens,  or,  perhaps,  a body  representing  the 
gentes ; and  its  augmentation  would  be  a natural  con- 
sequence of  the  increased  number  of  Patricians.  43. 
The  Patricians  were  entirely  separated  from  the  Ple- 
beians, no  connubium  being  permitted  between  the 


INHABITANTS  OF  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE. 


33 


two  orders.  They  enjoyed  the  exclusive  privilege  of 
eligibility  to  the  offices  of  Senator,  magistrate,  and 
priest,  the  right  of  taking  possession  of  the  public 
lands  acquired  by  conquest,  and  farming  them  on  the 
payment  of  a certain  rent,  whilst  the  Plebeians  were 
obliged  to  content  themselves  with  insignificant  allot- 
ments ; and  lastly,  the  auspices  and  interpretation  of 
the  laws  were  in  their  hands.  Meanwhile,  however, 
the  Plebeians  were  increasing  in  importance  as  well  as 
numbers,  by  the  admission  of  vanquished  tribes  into 
their  body.  From  the  time  of  Servius  Tullius  they 
were  allowed  to  take  part  in  the  comitia,  and  by  de- 
grees were  admitted  to  equal  rights  with  the  Patricians. 
By  the  connubium,  the  gentes  were  mingled,  the  Patri- 
cian families  gradually  became  extinct,  and  in  the  time 
of  the  Emperors,  were  replaced  by  persons  selected 
from  the  body  of  Senators. 

§ 10.  Classes  and  Centuries. 

44.  The  division  into  classes  and  centuries  was  the 
work  of  Servius  Tullius,  who  wished  to  unite  the  dif- 
ferent estates  of  his  kingdom,  and  to  apportion  the 
burdens  of  war  and  taxation  more  fairly  among  the 
rich,  whilst,  at  the  same  time,  he  granted  them  a larger 
share  in  the  administration  of  the  government.  In 
pursuance  of  this  plan,  he  formed  certain  classes  ac- 
cording to  a property  qualification,  giving  to  each  a 
number  of  centuries  or  votes,  in  such  a manner,  that 
the  rich,  although  fewest  in  number,  had  most  voices. 
The  equites,  consisting  of  eighteen  centuries,  voted 
first ; then  the  first  class,  which  had  eighty  centuries. 
The  minimum  qualification  of  this  class  was  fixed  at 
100,000  asses:  there  also  belonged  to  it  two  centuries 
of  handicraftsmen  ( centuries  fabrum).  45.  The  second 
class  consisted  of  twenty  centuries  ; their  qualification 
was  property  to  the  amount  of  75.000  asses ; the  third, 
twenty  centuries,  with  50,000  assss  ; the  fourth,  twenty 
centuries  and  25,000  asses ; and  the  fifth,  thirty  cen- 
turies and  10,000  asses.  Among  these  were  the  accensi , 


64 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


cornicines,  and  tubicim.es,  divided  into  three  centuries. 
Those  who  were  still  poorer  were  comprehended  in 
only  one  century3  ( proletarii , capite  censi ).  They 
were  seldom  required  to  serve  in  the  army,  except  in 
cases  of  great  necessity.  Marius,  however,  recruited 
from  them  as  well  as  the  other  classes.  46.  Each  class 
was  divided  into  an  equal  number  of  centurise  seniorum 
and  juniorum,  and  had  its  distinctive  military  equip- 
ment. This  arrangement,  as  far  as  condition,  property, 
and  age  were  of  political  importance,  has  been  described 
by  Livy.  Other  writers  vary  from  him  in  a few  par- 
ticulars. At  a later  period,  as  Livy  also  points  out, 
although  it  is  uncertain  when  or  in  what  manner,  a 
change  was  introduced,  the  centuries  being  placed  in 
connexion  with  the  division  into  tribes,  each  of  which 
now  consisted  of  two  centuries.  The  division  into 
classes,  however,  and  the  property  qualification  were 
still  retained. 


§ 11.  The  later  Tribus. 

47.  Servius  Tullius  divided  the  city  into  four  tribus 
or  districts,  and  the  country  into  twenty-six,  or,  accord- 
ing to  other  authorities,  into  sixteen.  After  the  expul- 
sion of  the  kings,  there  were  at  first  twenty  tribus,  a 
consequence,  probably,  of  the  loss  sustained  by  the 
state  in  the  war  with  Porsenna,  (b.  c.  509-507) : after- 
wards, however,  the  number  was  gradually  augmented 
to  thirty- five.  The  division  into  tribes  became  especi- 
ally important  as  the  power  of  the  people  increased, 
the  comitia  tributa  being  assemblies  of  Plebeians,  over 
which  the  Patricians  had  little  influence.  The  tribus 
rusticce  were  the  most  respectable,  and  contained  the 
richer  citizens,  who  possessed  landed  property.  48. 
The  four  tribus  itrbance,  Palatina,  Suburrana,  Collina, 

3 Niebuhr  says,  “The  Romans  knew  only  of  five  classes;  so  that 
Dionysius,  who  calls  such  as  gave  in  less  than  12,500  asses,  a sixth  class, 
is  just  as  much  mistaken  in  this  as  when  he  allows  them  only  one  centu- 
ry.” He  also  considers  it  beyond  a question,  that  the  fortune  of  the  fifth 
class  was  12,500  asses,  as  Dionysius  states  if,,  not  11,000,  as  Livy. 


INHABITANTS  OF  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE. 


35 


and  Esquilina,  which  contained  the  rabble  of  the  city, 
and  the  inferior  tradesmen  and  artisans,  were  little  es- 
teemed ; and  as  the  persons  admitted  to  the  freedom  of 
the  city  whose  names  were  inserted  in  the  register  of 
the-  tribus  urbance,  gradually  contrived  to  intrude  them- 
selves into  the  tribus  rusticce,  it  was  a meritorious  deed, 
when  the  Censor  Q,.  Fabius  Maximus  Rullianus  (b.  c. 
304),  and  subsequently  Tib.  Sempronius,  the  father  of 
the  Gracchi,  forced  them  back  into  the  tribus  urbance. 
In  the  time  of  the  Caesars,  this  division  into  tribes  lost 
its  importance. 


§ 12.  Or  dines. 

49.  As  the  political  importance  of  the  distinction 
between  Patricians  and  Plebeians  disappeared,  the 
word  plebs  began  to  be  employed  to  designate  the 
mere  rabble ; and,  in  this  sense,  we  find  sometimes 
the  term  nobilitas,  and  sometimes  ordines  used  for  the 
higher  ranks,  among  which  were  reckoned  the  Sena- 
tors and  Knights.  The  word  ordo  is  more  rarely  used 
with  reference  to  the  Plebeians. 


a.  Ordo  senatorius. 

50.  Livy  informs  us,  that  Romulus  chose  one  hun- 
dred Senators  ( patres 4).  When  the  Sabines  joined 
the  Romans,  the  number  was  increased  to  two  hun- 
dred. Many  of  the  conquered  Albans  were  afterwards 
admitted  into  the  Senate  by  Tullus  Hostilius.  Lastly, 
Tarquinius  Priscus  chose  Senators  from  the  new  patri- 
cian families  ( patres  minorum  gentium),  by  which  the 
number  was  increased  to  three  hundred.  As  this  was 
diminished  by  later  Kings,  the  Consuls  restored  the 
original  number  of  three  hundred  by  the  introduction 
of  new  members,  who  at  first  were  distinct  from  the 
patres,  properly  so  called  ( patres  et  conscripti) . Sulla 


4 This  word  is  sometimes  used  to  designate  Patricians. 


86 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTtaUITIES. 


increased  the  number  to  six  hundred.5  51.  As  the 
Senate  was  supposed  to  concentrate  the  dignity  and 
power  of  the  state  ( amplissimus , maximus,  sanctissi- 
mus  or  do ),  all  the  regulations  for  admission  into  the 
body  were  framed  with  reference  to  this  object.  It 
was  required  that  the  candidate  should  be  free-born, 
and  possess  a certain  amount  of  property  (in  latei 
times  800,000  sestertii).  Even  at  an  early  period  the 
qualification  must  have  been  considerable,  since  the 
Senators  were  required  to  devote  themselves  for  life  to 
the  duties  of  their  office  without  receiving  any  remu- 
neration, and  were  not  allowed  to  exercise  any  trade 
or  employment,  or  to  become  farmers  of  the  public 
revenue.  52.  The  Senators  were  chosen  ( legebantur ) 
by  the  Kings,  the  Consuls,  and  afterwards  by  the  Cen- 
sors. This  choice  was  not  arbitrary,  but  dependent  on 
certain  qualifications,  one  of  which  in  later  times  was 
the  having  fulfilled  the  duties  of  the  magistracy,  the 
first  degree  of  which  was  the  Qusestorship  (the  cetas 
qucestoria  was  twenty-seven).  At  first  the  Senators 
were  chosen  exclusively  from  the  patrician  order,  but 
even  in  the  early  days  of  the  Republic  we  hear  of  ple- 
beian Senators ; and  this  became  more  common,  when 
the  higher  offices,  which  were  introductory  to  the 
Senate,  began  to  be  filled  by  Plebeians.  The  insignia 
of  the  Senators  were  the  latus  clavus  (broad  purple 
band  woven  in  front  of  the  tunica),  the  calcei  lunati 
(short  boot  with  the  letter  C on  the  top  of  the  foot)  of 
the  patrician  Senators,  and  a particular  seat  at  the 
public  shows. 

b.  Ordo  equester. 

53.  At  its  institution  this  was  simply  a military  or- 
der. Romulus  appears  to  have  created  three  centuries 
of  Knights,  corresponding  to  his  division  of  the  clans 

5 “ Schaaf  makes  the  same  assertion,  but  it  is  destitute  of  proof.  Ap- 
pian  informs  us  that  Sulla  added  to  the  Senate  three  hundred  of  the  eques- 
trian order,  but  its  number  probably  did  not  exceed  five  hundred.” — ■ 
Osenbrilggen. 


INHABITANTS  OF  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE. 


37 


into  Ramnes,  Tides,  and  Luceres.  They  were  proba- 
bly the  same  as  the  royal  body-guard  ( celeres ) men- 
tioned by  Livy.  After  the  taking  of  Alba,  Tubus 
Hostilius  is  said  to  have  enlarged  the  centuries,  and 
Tarquinius  Priscus  doubled  their  number.  Servius 
Tullius  added  twelve  new  centuries  of  Knights  to  the 
six6  which  already  existed.  These  eighteen  voted  first 
in  the  first  class  of  citizens  (44).  The  order  consisted 
of  the  most  wealthy  citizens,  and  at  first  each  of  them 
received  an  equus  publicus 7 and  ces  equestre,  that  is,  an 
order  on  the  viduce  for  the  purchase  and  keep  ( ces 
hordearium)  of  their  horses.8 9  54.  At  a later  period 
the  order  acquired  political  importance  through  its  in- 
vestment with  the  judicia  (b.  c.  122),  which  it  retained 
until  the  time  of  Sulla.  As  many  of  the  Knights  also 
acquired  large  fortunes  by  farming  ( publicani ) the 
public  revenue  (vecdgalia) , their  influence  in  the  state 
became  very  considerable.  The  military  character  of 
the  order  gradually  disappeared,  and  all  free-born  citi- 
zens, who  possessed  the  census  equester  (latterly  400,- 
000  sestertii)  were  equites.3  The  custom,  however, 
still  continued  of  furnishing  an  equus  publicus,  and 
none  but  those  who  possessed  one,  voted  in  the  centu- 
ries equitum  (44),  even  after  the  alteration  in  the 
comitia  centuriata.  The  insignia  of  the  Knights  were 
the  annulus  aureus,  the  angustus  clavus,'  and  the  four- 
teen first  benches  at  the  theatre.  Their  epithets  of 
honour  are  splendidi  fords  simi. 


6 These  were  named  the  sex  svffragia. 

7 The  Senators  had  also  originally  an  equus  publicus,  and  voted  in 
the  centuries  equitum. 

a “ An  annual  rent-charge  of  2,000  asses  on  the  estates  of  single 
women  and  orphans,  who  were  thus  made  to  contribute  to  the  defence 
of  the  state  which  gave  them  protection.” — Keightley. 

9 According  to  Ruperti,  Equites  ex  censu ; though  they  were  Equites, 
they  did  not  belong  to  the  ordo  equester,  which  consisted  solely  of  Equites 
cquo  publico. 

1 Cf.  the  description  of  the  latus  clavus,  52.  From  these  privileges 
vivere  angusto  clavo  contentum  (Veil.)  = to  be  satisfied  with  equestrian 
rank  ; and  sedcre  in  quatuordecim,  to  sit  among  the  Equites,  i.  e.  to  be 
an  Eques. 


38 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIOUITIES. 


§ 13.  Nobiles  and  ignobiles. 

55.  As  the  ancient  difference  between  Patricians 
and  Plebeians  disappeared,  there  arose  a new  classifi- 
cation into  nobiles,  and  ignobiles.  The  magistracies 
at  Rome  were  posts  of  honour  to  which  the  holders 
were  appointed  by  the  choice  of  the  people:  it  was 
therefore  considered  a great  distinction  to  attain  the 
higher  grades.  At  first  they  were  reserved  for  the  Pa- 
tricians, but  when  the  Plebeians  were  also  admitted  to 
their  share  of  the  honour,  there  arose  by  degrees,  with- 
out any  public  enactment,  an  order  of  nobility  consist- 
ing of  those  persons,  whether  Patricians  or  Plebeians, 
whose  ancestors  for  many  generations  had  filled  the 
curule  offices  (the  iEdileship,  Prastorship.  and  Con- 
sulate). 56.  As  the  majority  were  precluded  from  be- 
coming candidates  for  these  offices,  especially  the  j 
/Edileship,  by  the  expense,  there  was  formed  by  de- 
grees a corporation  so  firmly  supported  by  wealth  and 
hereditary  reputation,  that  even  men  of  the  most  dis-  | 
tinguished  talents,  who  were  destitute  of  those  qualifi- 
cations, very  rarely  succeeded  in  raising  themselves  to  j! 
the  order.  Such  homines  novi  (i.  e.  men  who  did  so 
raise  themselves)  were  Marius  in  the  Jugurthine  war, 
and  Cicero  in  the  time  of  Catiline’s  conspiracy.  The 
only  privilege  of  nobility  was  the  jus  imaginum,  an 
ancient  custom,  which  consisted  in  setting  up  the 
waxen  busts  of  their  ancestors  in  cases  (armaria)  fixed 
for  that  purpose  in  the  atrium.  57.  These  figures 
were  provided  with  an  inscription  ( titulus ),  setting 
forth  the  offices  which  the  deceased  had  filled,  and 
were  bound  together  by  festoons  (stemmata).  At 
funerals  they  were  borne  before  men,  who  were 
dressed  like  the  persons  represented  by  the  busts.  Out 
of  these  nobiles  and  the  Senate  were  formed  the  opti- 
mates  or  conservative  party,  who  supported  the  dignity 
of  the  Senate,  and  the  established  order  of  things 
against  the  movement  party  (populares),  who  strove 
to  obtain  for  the  people  not  only  substantial  advantages, 
but  the  greatest  possible  political  influence. 


INHABITANTS  OF  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE. 


39 


f 14.  Inhabitants  of  the  colonise  civium,  municipia,  and 
prasfecturae. 

58.  A necessary  consequence  of  the  original  extent 
of  the  Roman  dominion  was,  that  no  distinction  existed 
between  the  civic  administration  and  that  of  the  state  ; 
and  even  when  in  later  times  the  empire  was  increased 
by  conquests,  the  same  plan  was  retained.  Rome  was 
the  centre  of  all  government,  and  the  exercise  of  the 
most  important  political  rights  was  dependent  on  a 
residence  in  the  capital.  Thus  with  regard  to  actual 
participation  in  the  affairs  of  government,  we  may  dis- 
tinguish between  the  Romans  properly  so  called,  and 
the  citizens  who  were  introduced  at  a later  period,  of 
whom  a part  ( cives  sine  suffragio),  at  a very  early  pe- 
riod, were  essentially  distinguished  from  the  Romans 
by  the  enjoyment  of  fewer  privileges. 

a.  Coloni. 

59.  In  ancient  times  the  conquered  nations  were 
compelled  to  accept  the  privilege  of  Roman  citizen- 
ship under  less  favourable  conditions  than  the  original 
inhabitants  ( civitas  sine  suffragio),  and  plundered  of  a 
part  of  their  land,  which  was  sold  as  ager  publicus,  or 
assigned  to  Roman  citizens,  or  let  to  individuals  ( pa- 
tricians),  in  return  for  a certain  ground-rent.  In  order 
to  secure  the  conquered  territory  from  the  attacks  of 
foreign  enemies,  as  well  as  from  any  attempts  of  the 
former  inhabitants  to  recover  their  possessions,  it  was 
usual,  in  accordance  with  the  old  Etruscan  and  Latin 
practice,  to  send  thither  a colony,  consisting  at  first  of 
300  men.  The  colonists,  who  thenceforward  must  be 
considered  as  a military  garrison,  retained  all  the  privi- 
leges of  Roman  citizens  with  the  connubium  and  com- 
mercium,  and  thus  formed  an  order  superior  to  the 
original  inhabitants,  an  arrangement  which  often  pro- 
duced insurrections.  60.  These  colonies,  which  had 
begun  to  be  sent  out  even  in  the  time  of  the  Kings, 
were  called  colonice  civium,  in  opposition  to  the  colonies 


40 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


Latirue,  which  consisted,  not  of  citizens,  but  of  Latin 
allies,  who  after  the  conquesl  of  Latium  (b.  c.  338), 
were  sent  out  under  Roman  leaders.  After  a long 
time  had  elapsed  without  the  establishment  of  any 
colonics,  civium,  some  were  again  sent,  after  the  second 
Punic  war,  to  those  places  which  during  Hannibal’s 
campaign  had  been  unfaithful  to  Rome.  At  a later 
period  some  were  sent  to  Gallia  Cispadana.  The 
establishment  of  colonies  according  to  the  old  regula- 
tions  never  extended  beyond  this  point.  Under  the 
Gracchi  the  sending  out  of  colonies  civium  had  another 
object  in  view,  namely,  the  support  of  the  poorer  citi- 
zens. In  Sulla’s  time,  military  colonies  were  established 
for  the  purpose  of  rewarding  veteran  soldiers ; an  ar- 
rangement which  was  retained  by  the  Emperors,  but 
chiefly  in  the  provinces.  61.  Colonies  were  led  out 
( deducebantur ),  after  a plebiscitum,  on  the  motion  of  the 
Senate.  The  colonists,  who  in  the  ancient  time  espe- 
cially were  by  no  means  taken  from  the  ranks  of  beg- 
garly and  profligate  citizens,  gave  in  their  names 
( nomina  dabant)  of  their  own  accord  ; but  in  the  event 
of  there  being  a deficiency  of  volunteers,  persons  might 
be  impressed  for  the  services.  They  marched  in  mili- 
tary order  ( sub  vexillo),  under  the  command  of  their 
officers  ( triumviri  coloniis  deducendis)  to  the  spot,  the 
boundaries  of  which,  according  to  ancient  custom, 
were  marked  out  by  the  plough.  Of  this  ground  a 
certain  number  of  acres  were  assigned  to  each  colo- 
nist. The.  internal  administration  of  the  colonies  was 
copied  from  that  of  Rome. 

b.  Municipes. 

62.  The  municipia  were  towns  the  inhabitants  of 
which  had  been  formerly  peregrini,  and  were  now 
cives.  They  enjoyed  the  rights  of  Roman  citizenship, 
but  were  governed  by  their  own  magistrates,  and  man- 
aged their  affairs  according  to  their  own  customs  : at 
first  they  were  partly  with,  and  partly  without  the 
suffragium ; but  after  the  helium  socials  all  the  Italian 


INHABITANTS  OF  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE. 


41 


towns  were  made  municipia  cum  suffragio.  In  the 
time  of  the  Emperors  there  were  also  municipia  in 
the  provinces. 


c.  Incolcs  prccfecturarum. 

63.  Th & prefectures  (e.  g.  Capua)  had  no  suffragia 
nor  any  peculiar  jurisdiction,  but  were  governed  by  a 
prcrfectus  sent  out  every  year  from  Rome.  By  de- 
grees they  obtained  the  suffragia,  but  still  retained  their 
preefectus  and  the  name  of  prccfecturce. 

§ 15.  Ingenui  and  libertini. 

64.  Another  distinction,  not  altogether  unimportant 
as  regarded  civic  privileges,  was  that  between  the 
free-born  ( ingenui ) and  the  emancipated  ( libertini ). 
See  72. 


B.  Of  the  Peregrini. 

§ 16.  Socii  and  Provinciales. 

65.  The  nations  subdued  by  the  Romans  in  the 
earliest  times  of  the  Republic  were  all  admitted  to  a 
sort  of  compulsory  citizenship  without  svffragium. 
Those  who  were  conquered  at  a later  period  were 
termed  peregrini,  and  were  placed  in  a subordinate 
relation  to  the  Roman  state,  without  any  participation 
in  the  rights  of  citizenship.  Of  these  peregrini  some 
(socii)  had  a constitution  of  their  own,  but  were  re- 
quired to  furnish  contingents  of  troops,  or,  as  occasion 
required,  subsidies  in  money,  grain,  ships,  &c. ; and 
sometimes  also  paid  tributa.  Their  relation  to  the 
state  was  generally  defined  by  written  covenants 
(civitates  liber ce  et  foederatce),  the  terms  of  which 
varied  according  to  circumstances ; by  degrees,  how- 
ever, their  condition  became  one  of  extreme  hardship. 
To  these  allied  states  which  retained  their  own  form 


42 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


of  government,  belonged  especially  the  Italian  tribes, 
and  some  nations  out  of  Italy.  66.  Other  peregrini 
were  completely  subordinate,  being  governed  by  Ro- 
man laws  and  Roman  magistrates,  and  compelled  to 
pay  heavy  tributa  (provinciates,  dedititii).  The  pere- 
grini, having  no  part  in  the  state,  were  excluded  from 
the  j us  suffragii  and  lionorum,  and  were  liable  to  cor- 
poral punishment  and  ill-treatment  at  the  caprice  of 
the  Roman  magistrates.  With  regard  to  their  private 
rights,  they  possessed  neither  the  connubium  nor  the 
commercium .2  In  ancient  times  they  were  not  allowed 
to  plead  in  a court  of  justice,  but  were  compelled  to 
employ  the  services  of  some  host  or  patron  among  the 
Roman  citizens.  This  restriction,  however,  was  re- 
moved, when  a court  was  established  expressly  for  the 
settlement  of  disputes  between  peregrini,  or  between 
foreigners  and  Romans.  We  find  on  several  occasions 
that  the  peregrini  were  banished  from  Rome  by  legis- 
lative enactments. 


§ 17.  Latini. 

67.  Among  the  socii  the  most  remarkable  were  the 
Latins,  from  whom  the  Romans  derived  their  origin. 
The  peculiarity  of  their  relation  to  the  Roman  state,  is 
expressed  by  the  terms  socii  nomenque  Latinum.  At 
an  early  period  Rome  was  on  terms  of  hostility  with 
the  Latins.  Under  Tullus  Hostilius,  Alba  was  taken 
and  its  inhabitants  transferred  to  Rome,  where  some  of 
the  most  distinguished  families  were  admitted  into  the 
class  of  Patricians.  The  war  still  continued  under 
succeeding  Kings,  but  in  the  reign  of  Tarquinius  Su- 
perbus, Rome  became  the  head  of  the  Latin  confedera- 
tion. After  the  expulsion  of  the  Kings,  the  wars  be- 
gan afresh,  and  continued  until  b.  c.  493,  when  an 

2 The  Isopolity,  as  it  was  called,  or  community  of  private  rights,  be- 
tween two  free  states,  existed  only  in  the  ancient  alliance  of  the  Romans 
with  the  Latins  and  Hernici,  and  their  still  older  communion  with  the 
paerites.  In  no  other  instance  was  it  granted  even  to  the  most  favoured 
of  the  socii. 


INHABITANTS  OF  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE. 


43 


alliance  was  concluded,  by  which  equal  rights  together 
with  the  connubium  were  secured  to  both  parties.  The 
Hernici  also  were  admitted  into  this  confederation,  but 
Rome  soon  began  to  aim  at  supremacy.  68.  These 
struggles,  it  is  ,true,  were  several  times  interrupted,  es- 
pecially by  the  Gallic  war  ; but  at  length  (b.  c.  338) 
the  whole  of  Latium  was  brought  under  the  Roman 
yoke.  The  Latins  remained  peregrini,  probably  with- 
out commercium  and  connubium,  and  were  required  to 
serve  in  the  Roman  armies.  Still  their  connexion  with 
Rome  was  more  intimate  than  that  of  the  other  socii ; 
and  under  certain  circumstances  they  might  be  ad- 
mitted to  the  freedom  of  the  city;  for  example,  if  they 
had  filled  one  of  the  highest  offices  in  their  own  coun- 
try, or  settled  at  Rome,  and  left  issue  male.  The  Ro- 
mans frequently  employed  the  Latin  people  for  the  pur- 
pose of  extending  and  consolidating  their  power,  and 
spreading  their  language,  a measure  which  was  accom- 
plished by  the  establishment  of  colonies  ( colonies  Lat- 
ince),  commanded  by  Roman  triumviri,  and  placed  in 
the  same  position  with  the  Latins  themselves.  69.  Af- 
ter the  helium  Latinum,  the  Latins  and  their  colonies 
were  admitted  to  the  freedom  of  the  city ; and  in  the 
following  year  some  cities  in  Gallia  Transpadana, 
under  the  name  of  Latin  colonies,  were  invested  with 
the  same  privileges  which  the  Latins  had  formerly  en- 
joyed ( jus  Latii,  Latinitas,)  an  arrangement  which 
was  afterwards  extended  by  the  Emperors  to  the 
provinces.  From  the  time  of  Tiberius  to  that  of  Jus- 
tinian, the  name  Latini  ( Juniani ) was  understood  to 
express  a sort  of  libertini  who  had  the  commercium, 
but  not  the  connubium,  and  under  certain  restrictions 
might  be  admitted  to  the  full  privileges  of  citizenship. 
The  rest  of  the  Italian  socii  possessed  a constitution 
somewhat  less  liberal,  but  in  no  essential  particular 
different  from  that  of  the  Latins.  In  the  time  of  the 
Emperors  this  constitution  was  extended,  under  the 
name  of  jus  Italicum,  to  cities  in  the  provinces, 
where,  without  being  connected  with  any  personal 
privileges,  it  exercised  an  influence  principally  on 


4<± 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


the  legal  position  of  landed  property,  and  the  burden 
of  taxation,  Italy  itself  being  free  from  all  charges  on 
land. 


C.  Of  the  Servi. 

§ 18.  Condition  of  the  Slaves. 

70.  Among  the  Romans,  as  among  the  other  na- 
tions of  antiquity,  a portion  only  of  the  members  of 
society  enjoyed  freedom  at  the  expense  of  the  rest, 
who  were  compelled  to  discharge  the  most  laborious 
and  degrading  offices.  The-,  slaves  were  considered 
not  as  persons,  buff  as  chattels)  like  any  other  article, 
they  might  be  bought,  sold,  ceded,  and  bequeathed  by 
will.  Until  the  time  of  Antonius,  masters  had  th efjus 
vitoe  et  vnecis)(p{  whichuhowever,  they  seldom  availed 
themselves))  as  well  asTthe  power  of  inflicting  corporal 
punishment)  at  discretion  ( flagellum , lor  a,  virgce, 
farca,  stigmata,  ergastulum,  in  pistrlnum  dari,3  plecti 
pendentem,  crux).  The  slaves  received  a monthly 
allowance  for  their  support  ( demensum ),  but  could  not 
acquire  property,  except  with  the  consent  of  their 
masters  ( peculium ).  They  were  partly  slaves  of  pri- 
vate citizens,  partly  of  the  state ; the  latter  were 
employed  in  public  works.  Slavery  was  the  result 
either  of  birth  or  captivity  ( vendi  sub  corona).*  In 
ancient  times  insolvent  debtors  might  be  made  slaves. 
Even  fa  refusal  to  be  registered  at  the  census  (in- 
census),  and  a withdrawal  from  military  service)  might 
be  punished  by  enslavement.  Foreigners  were  often 
sold  byjthe  s\&ve-dea.\eri)(mangdnes)  in  the  great  slave- 
markety-at  Rome. 

y 3 Ergastulum,  a private  prison  where  the  slaves  worked  in  chains : 
in  pistrlnum  dari,  to  be  sent  to  the  hake-house,  to  pound  or  grind  corn.  \ 
4 The  slave  being  sold  with  a garland  on  his  head  : he  stood  oils' 
platform  ( catasta ) or  a raised  stone  (lapis;  hence  de  lapide  emptum 
esse).  The  Mango  was  bound  to  tell  the  slave’s  faults,  and  ( prtsstare ) 
to  warrant  him  with  reference  to  faults  not  mentioned.  A scroll  ( titulus ' 
round  the  neck  stated  these  faults  and  his  good  qualities,  &c. 


POLITICAL  POWER. 


45 


§ 19.  Emancipated  Slaves. 

72)  Emancipation  (manumissio)  was  effected  either 
by  entering  the  name  of  the  slave  in  the  Censor’s  books 
( censu ),  or  by  the  observance  of  certafu  ceremonies 
before  the  praetor  ( vindictd ),5  or  by  wj \\){testamento) . 
fn  later  times,  other  more  simple  forms  of  manumission 
were  employed  (inter  amicos,  per  epistolam,  per  men- 
saim ,6  Augustulrby  /he  Lex  JElia  Sentia,  made  the 
l'ignt  of  manumission  dependent  on  certain  conditions, 
which  were  regulated^  by  the  respective  ages  of  the 
emancipator  and  emancipated.  73.  The  connexion 
between  the  freedman  and  the  ( libertinus  ; and  in 
s reference  to  his  master,  liberties)  and  his  former  lord 
ij-jfwas  not  entirely  dissolved  by  manumission^  He  as- 
sumed his  master’s/ nomen  and  preenomem  and  became 
his  client ; and  if  ne  died  intestato,  without  issue/his 
master  inherited  his  property)  (Nor  did  he  enjoy'" all 
the  public  rights  of  a free-born*  citizen)  In  conse- 
quence of  certain  legal  enactments,  whfch,  however, 
were  not  always  strictly  observed,  he  was  only  admit- 
ted into  the  city  tribes';  and  previously  to  the  Social 
ward  he  was-prohibitecT  from  serving  in  the  army,  and 
excluded  from  the  magistracy  and  the  Senate.  (The 
same  regulation  (was  also  observed)  as  a general  rule, 
with  regard  to  th e'Jilii  libertinoruml) 


POLITICAL  POWER. 

§ 1.  Division  of  Political  Power. 


74.  In  the  best  days  of  the  Republic,  political 
power  was  divided  {equally  between  the  people)  the 


5 Vindicla  = virga  pratoris,  qua  percutiebantur  servi  dum  liberi 
fiebant.  manumittebaiUurque  capiti  imposita.  (Schol.  in  Hor.). — The  free- 
dom of  the  slave  was  demanded  by  a fictitious  claimant  (a ssertor  liber- 
tatis).  The.  master,  who  was  holding  him,  then  let  him  go  ( manu 
emittebat),  with  the  words,  Hunc  hominem  liberum  esse  volo).  The 
vindicla  (al.  festuca)  was  then  laid  upon  his  head,  and  he  was  turned 
round  (hence,  momento  turbinis  exit  Marcus  Dama.  Pers).  The  Pite- 
tor  then  declared  him  free. 

6 i.  e by  inviting  him  to  sit  at  table  with  him  and  his  friends,  writ' 
ing  him  a letter,  &c. 


46 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


Senate,  and  the  ruling  magistrates.  To  the  people 
belonged , the  supreme  majesty  and  sovereign  power. 
They  possessed  the  legislative  authority^ under  which 
Was  comprehended  the  right  of  deciding  questions  of 
peace  or  war,  the  right  of  choosing  magistrates,  and 
the  judicia  capitis,  until  the  introduction  of  the  quces- 
tiones  perpetuce  (about  b.  c.  144).  75.  The  executive 

authority,  strictly  so  called,  with  its  overwhelming 
influence, ^belonged  to  the  Senate^  The  officers  of 
state  werff  chosen  by  the  people^  for  the  purpose  of 
presiding  in  the  general  assemblies,  and  of  carrying 
out  the  decrees  of  the  people  and  Senate  in  different 
branches  of  the  administration.  It  would  seem,  how- 
ever, that  the  boundary  line  between  the  provinces  of 
the  various  authorities  was  not  always  very  distinctly 
drawn ; an  imperfection  which  may  be  attributed  to 
the  confusion  and  struggles  out  of  which  the  Roman 
constitution  developed  itself.  » 


A.  P o p u 1 u s . 

§ 2.  Comitia. 

76.  The  power  of  the  people  was  exercised  in  the 
Comitia  ( comitium , sing.,  a place  in  the  forum  in  front 
of  the  Curia  Hostilia),  that  is,  in  assemblies  regularly 
summoned  according  to  law  and  by  the  proper 
magistrates,  for  the  discussion  and  decision  of  public 
questions.7  Of  these  Comitia  there  were1:  three  sorts, 
curiata,  centuriata. , and  tributa ) ( The  curiata  belong- 
ed to  the  old  or  Patrician  fdrm  of  government,  j and 
lost  its  importance  when  that  party  no  longer  retained 
(The  centuriata.  comprehended  all  the 
tributa  belonged  exclusively,  or,  in  a 
(to  the  Plebs , to  which  they  owed  their 

7 Concio  (or  contio),  on  the  contrary,  is  an  assembly  convoked  by  a 
single  magistrate,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  information  to  the  people  on 
any  particular  subject,  or  of  deliberating  on  a proposed  measure  previously 
to  the  Comitia. 


its  privileges, 
people?)  The 
greatmeasure, 


POLITICAL  POWEit. 


47 


origin  and  importance.  With  the  decline  of  the  Re- 
public and  of  morals,  for  instance  after  the  lex  Julia 
(b.  c.  90\,  the  Comitia  became  a theatre  for  the  conten- 
tions oT  unquiet  spirits,  the  struggles  of  party,  and 
bribery  ( divisores).5  / Under  Caesar  and  Augustus  they 
lost  their  importance)  knd  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius 
were  entirely  supjtrgssea7;' 


77. 


§ 3.  General  Regulatiojis  cf  the  Comitia. 

The  Comitia  could  only  be  held  on  certain 


days)  especially  appointed  for  that  purposed ((A'es  comi 
tiales),  but  never  on  festivals  ( ferice ).  , It  was  re- 
quired that  previous  notice  of  the  time  x>f  meeting 
should  be  given  by  an  edict,  and  that  the  subjects  for 
discussion  should  be  notified)  ( promulgari ).  Before 
the  Comitia  for  electing  magistrates,  the  candidates 
were  obliged  to  announce  themselves  to  the  proper 
officers  /a  certain  length  of  time  before  the  day  of 
meetin §\profiteri) . 78.  The  business  of  the  Comitia 

must  Tae  . transacted /in  one  day) between  sunrise  and 
sunset.  (The  proceedings  were  adjourned,  if  the  Tri- 
bunes of  the  people  interposed  their  yetdj  ( intercessio ), 
or  unlucky  appearances  presented  themselves,  such  as 
thunder  and  lightning,9  or,  if  an  augur  or  magistrate 
who  had  the  right  to  hold  auspicia  ( servare  de  caelo, 
spectio),  and  possessed  the  power  of  breaking  up  the 
assembly  by  the  simple  announcement  that  he  intended 
to  make  observations,  thought  fit  to  object  ( ohnuntiatio , 
alio  die).  The  auspices  of  a superior  magistrate  had 
precedence  over  those  of  an  inferior ; whence  the  fre- 
quent occurrence  in  the  edict  proclaimed  by  the  Con- 
sul, “ Ne  quis  magistratus  minor  de  coslo  servasse 
velit.”  The  mode  of  proceeding  at  the  Comitia  will 
be  discussed  under  the  head  of  the  Comitia  centuriata, 
with  which  we  are  best  acquainted. 

Divisores  were  electioneering  agents  who  paid  the  money:  the 
interpreter  bought  the  vote : sequestres  held  the  money  till  it  was 
eqrncd.  J 

9 An  epileptic  fit  was  also  thought  ominous,  and  caused  an  adjourn- 
ment. Hence  the  epilepsy  was  called  morbus  comitialis. 


46 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


§ 4.  Comitia  curiata. 

79.  The  Comitia  curiata  were  held  in  the  [ com 
tium\(76 ) in  ancient  times  by  the  Kings,  and  after 
wards  by  the  Consuls  and  Praetors.  At  first,  they 
were  the  only  assemblies  of  the  whole  people.  ^At 
them  laws  were  enacted,  and  the  Kings  elected  or 
confirmed  in  their  authority  ; but  after  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  Comitia  centuriata,  and  the  decline  of  the 
Patrician  influence,  they  gradually  lost  their  import- 
ance, and(jserved  principally  for  the  investiture  of 
magistrates  with  the  imperium,  or  military  command 
with  the  right  of  holding  auspicesj  (in  later  times,  the 
Curies  no  longer  assembled  Jiut  were  merely  represent- 
ed by  the  lictors.  rTo  these  Comitia  belonged  also 
the  Comitia  calata, (which  were  appointed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  sanctioning  certain  proceedings,  such  as  wills 
and  the  cletestationes  sacroruni. 

§ 5.  Comitia  centuriata. 

80.  The  Comitia  centuriata  were  held  extra  pomce- 
Hum,  (5)/ generally  by  the  Consul,,  but  sometimes  by 
the  rrsetitr.,  After  the  division  oi  the  people  by  Ser- 
vius  Tullius, ( nearly  the  same  powers  were  exercised 
by  these  Coimtia,  as  formerly  by  the  Comitia  curiata, 
with  the  exception  of  such  privileges  as  were  retained 
by  the  latter,  and  were  subsequently  transferred  to  the 
tributa,  when  the  plebisclta  had  acquired  the  force  of 
laws,  and  public^  questions  were  discussed  in  -these 
assemblies  without  any  very  definite  restriction.)  In 
the  Comitia  centuriata  the  Consuls,  Praetors,  antPCen- 
sors  were  elected,  laws  passed  and  abrQgated,  war 
ietermined  on  (for  the  first  time  in  b.  c.  42 Ij  after  a dis- 
oute  whether  this  could  take  place  in  consequence  of 
a resolution  of  the  Senate),  and  capital  offences  tried, 
until  the  introduction  of  the  qucestiones  perpetuce, 
when  the  judicial  functions  of  the  Comitia  were  grad- 
ually superseded. 

* Or,  perhaps,  they  served  for  the  confirmation  by  auguries  of  the 
elections  which  had  previously  been  held  in  the  Comitia  centuriata.  See 
Cicero  adv.  Rullum  2.11. 


POLITICAL  POWER. 


49 


§ 6.  Proceedings  at  the  Comitia  centuriata. 

81.  The  manner  in  which  these  Comitia  were  held, 
was  as  follows  : the  subject  for  discussion  was  publish- 
ed a trinundlnum  (seventeen  days)  before  the  day  of 
meeting.'  This  interval  was  employed  in  preliminary 
discussions,  ( suadere , dissuadere  legem),  in  assembling 
the  people  ( condones  76,  note  7),  and  in  canvassing 
for  votes,,  in  the  city  and  municipia.  On  the  day  of 
meeting,  the  auspices  were  consulted  by  the  presiding 
magistrate,  with  the  assistance  of  the  augurs.  The, 
Comitia  were  generally  held  on  thq  Campus  Martins. 
They  were  opened  (with  sacrifice  and  prayer  by  the 
presiding  magistrate/ Who  then  granted  permission  to 
other  magistrates  and  private  citizens  to  discuss  the 
question.  82f' After  the  debate,  it  wTas  allowed  to  the 
Tribunes  of  the  people  to  interpose  (intercedere).  If 
no  objection  were  made  on  the  part  of  the  Tribunes, 
and  no  religious  obstacle  existed,  the  magistrate  then 
called  on  the  people  to  arrange  themselves  for  voting, 
in  the  following  form  of  words)  “ 'Si  vobis  videtur, 
discedite,  Quiritesf  Then  followed  the  rogatio  ad 
populum,  /*  Velitis,  jubeatis,  Quirites (in  suffragia 
mittere ).  The  Knights  voted  first,  / then  the  other 
classes  in  regular  order,  .seldom  however  including  the 
fourth,  and  very  rarely,  if  ever,  proceeding  as  far  as 
the  sixth.  This  great  preponderance  on  the  part  of 
the  rich  was  afterwards  diminished  (probably  between 
the  first  and  second  Punic  war),  through  a more  popu- 
lar arrangement  of  the  Comitia,  in  which  the  division 
into  tribes  was  allowed  its  influenced  The  century 
which  voted  first,  was  termed  the  prcerogativa , and 
was  chosen  by  lot.  83.  At  first  the  votes  were  given 
viva  voce,  but  subsequently,  after  the  passing  of  the 
" leges  tabellarice,  they  were  delivered  in  writing  by 
means  of  a tabella,  on  which  were  inscribed  either  the 
words  TJti  rogas  (i.  e.  “?s  you  ask,”  = yes),  or  Anti- 
que'2 (“  I am  for  the  od  state  of  things,”  = no)  ; or  in 
Comitia  for  elections  the  name  of  the  candidate  for 


2 Antiquare  = in  modum  pristinum  reducere.  Fest. 

3 


50 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


whom  the  elector  voted.  The  centuries  which  were 
to  vote  passed  over  elevated  bridges  ( pontes ) into  an 
enclosed  space  ( ovale ).3  Here  the  tabellce  were  given 
to  them  by  the  distributors  ( diribitores ),  and  thrown 
into  cistce,  from  which  they  were  afterwards  taken  and 
counted  under  proper  inspection.  Finally  the  result 
was  proclaimed  in  a loud  voice.  The  law  adopted 
by  tbe  assembly  was  engraven  on  brass,  and  laid  up 
in  the  cerariurn. 

§ 7.  Regulations  common  to  the  Comitia  curiata  and 
centuriata. 

84.  The  regulations  common  to  both  sorts  of  Co- 
mitia were,  that  they  should  be  held  in  consequence 
of  a decree  of  the  Senate,,  and  after  the  auspices  had 
been  taken  ( auspicato ).4  In  the  earlier  times  their  reso- 
lutions were  confirmed  by  auctoritas  patrum,  a term 
by  which  some  understood  the  concurrence  of  the 
Senators ; others,  the  confirmation  by  the  Comitia 
curiata  of  the  resolutions  passed  at  the  Comitia  centu- 
riata. In  either  case  it  is  a remnant  of  the  ancient 
form  of  government,  the  importance  of  which  was  lost 
after  the  passing  of  the  lex  Publilia  (b.  c.  339),  which 
provided,  that  this  ratification  should  precede  the 
election. 

§ 8.  Comitia  tributa. 

85.  The  regulations  mentioned  in  the  preceding 
paragraph  did  not  apply  to  the  Comitia  tributa,  which 
were  held  intra  as  well  as  extra  Pomcerium  (5).  These 
meetings  were  first  introduced  at  the  trial  of  Coriola- 
nus  (b.  c.  451),  but  their  legal  establishment  was  founded 

3 There  was  undoubtedly  a difference  between  these  ovilia  and  the 
septa  erected  by  Caesar  on  the  Campus  Martius,  which  were  used  only 
for  a short  time  at  the  Comitia  tributa , and  afterwards  served  for  public 
shows,  &c.  In  the  Comitia  they  probably  served  for  the  partition  of  the 
tribus. 

4 The  decision  of  the  Augurs  could  even  reverse  a resolution  formally 
adopted  by  the  Comitia  : thus  b.  c.  444  the  three  first  Tribuni.  militum 
consulari  poteslatc  were  obliged  to  resign  their  offices  Augurum  decreto 
quasi  vitio  creati,  &c.  Liv  4,  7. 


political  power. 


51 


on  the  laws  of  Volero  Publilius  (b.  c.  471).  Their  ju- 
dicial authority -belonged  in  all  essential  matters  to  an 
earlier  period;  for  the  Tribunes,  until  the  laws  of  the 
Twelve  Tables,  were  in  the  habit  of  citing  before  this 
assembly  persons  accused  of  high  treason.  At  these 
Comitia  they  chose  the  Magistratus  plebeii  (after  the 
lex  Publilia  in  471),  and  minor es,  as  well  as  the 
JEcllles  cur ules,  and  to  a certain  extent  the  Military 
Tribunes;5  and  after  the  lex  Domitia  (b.  c.  104),  the 
election  of  priests,,  which  had  previously  taken  place 
by  co-optation,  was  committed  to  them,  but  under  a 
peculiar  form : but  they  became  important,  especially 
in  a legislative  point  of  view,  when  the  plebiscita  ob- 
tained by  three  enactments  ( lex  Valeria  Horatia,  449, 
Publilia,  339,  Hortensia,  286)  the  force  of  laws.  86. 
Subsequently  resolutions  were  passed  in  them  respect- 
ing public  questions,  partly  on  the  motion  of  the  Sen- 
ate (ex  auctoritate  senatiis),  without  any  clear  distinc- 
tion between  Comitia  centuriata  and  tributa,  partly 
independently  of  the  Senate.  To  these  Comitia  be- 
longed exclusively  the  power  of  passing  laws  affecting 
public  interests  strictly  so  called ; for  example,  the 
leges  agrarice,  frumentarice,  tabellarice,  and  various 
laws  relating  to  private  affairs.  They  were  generally 
held  by  the  Tribunes  of  the  people,  and  might  be  pro- 
rogued by  the  obnuntiatio{ 78).  The  Patricians,  whose 
influence  in  these  Comitia  was  inconsiderable,  seem  to 
have  absented  themselves  from  them.  The  legislative 
power  was  withdrawn  from  them  by  Sulla,  but  restored 
in  the  Consulship  of  Pompey  and  Crassus;  (b.  c.  70). 


B.  Senatus. 

§ 9.  Province  of  the  Senate. 

87.  The  Senate  possessed  the  administrative  au- 
thority, comprising  the  maintenance  of  religious  wor- 

5 It  would  seem  that  even  the  Tribuni  militum  consulari  polestate 
were  also  chosen  at  these  comitia.  See  Liv.  5, 18.  Niebuhr  3,  page  330 
note. 


52 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES, 


ship,  the  management  of  affairs  connected  with  finance 
and  taxation,  the  levying  of  troops,  negotiations  with 
foreign  and  allied  nations,  embassies,  the  administration 
of  the  provinces,  &c.  It  exercised  an  influence  over 
legislation,  and  until  the  time  of  the  Gracchi  the 
Judges  were  chosen  from  its  members.  In  extraordi- 
nary emergencies  it  called  on  the  magistrates  to  act  as 
circumstances  might  require,  in  the  following  form : 
“ Videant  Consules,  fyc.,  ne  quid  detrimenti  capiat  Res- 
publica and  especially  in  such  cases,  allowed  itself 
occasionally  to  exercise  an  authority  which  exceeded 
the  limits  defined  by  laws.  Und  ^ 1 * ■"t, 


tiniari)  to  exercise  some  legislative  authority,  to  elect 
the  republican  magistrates,  to  superintend  the  cerarium, 
and  the  provincial  administration,  and  to  act  as  a court 
of  criminal  justice.  . 

§ 10.  Mode  of  proceeding  in  the  Senate. 

88.  The  Senate  was  convoked  (convocabatur,  coge- 
batur)  and  held  by  the  Kings ; in  the  times  of  the  Re- 
public, by  the  Consuls  or  other  principal  magistrates, 
Praetors,  Dictators,  Interreges,  and  also  by  the  Tribunes 
of  the  People.  It  generally  assembled  in  the  Curiae 
(especially  the  Curia  Hostilia),  but  might  be  held  in 
any  place  consecrated  by  the  Augurs,)  especially  in 
temples ; for  instance,  in  the  cedes  C'oncordice,  and 
cedes  Bellonce,  where  audience  was  given  to  foreign 
ambassadors  (Senatus  iis  dabatur).  The  meetings  of 
the  Senate  were  either  regular  ( senatus  legitimus),  or 
extraordinary  ( senatus  indictus),  which  might  be  held 
on  any  day  except  the  days  of  the  Comitia.  Like  the 
assemblies  of  the  people,  the  meetings  of  the  Senate 
were  held  between  sunrise  and  sunset.  89.  The  pre- 
siding magistrate  having  announced  the  subject  for 
deliberation  (referre  ad  senatum),  each  member  was 
called  upon  to  state  his  opinion  (rogare  sententias, 
sententias  dicere ),  which  he  delivered  either  by  a single 
word,  sitting  ( verbo  sententiam  dicere,  verbo  assentiri), 


its  real  power ; but  continued 


POLITICAL  POWER. 


53 


or  on  his  legs  in  a set  speech.6  In  the  earlier  times  the 
Princeps  Senatus,  or  member  whose  name  stood  at  the 
head  of  the  list  (a  title  of  honour),  and  at  a later  period 
the  Consules  designati  were  first  called  on then  the 
question  w^s  put  to  the  others  in  the  order  of  their 
official  rank.  The  member  to  whom  the  question  was 
put  often  digressed  into  other  public  matters  (egrtdi 
relationem,  diem  dicendo  consumere ),  if  this  were  not 
previously  forbidden.  90.  Then  followed  the  actual 
voting  ( discessio , pedibus  ire  in  sententiam  alicujus),  at 
which  a separate  vote  was  occasionally  demanded  on 
each  particular  proposition,  on  which  a resolution  could 
be  founded  ( divide  sententiam ).  The  decree,  when 
passed  ( Senatus  consultum,  decretum)  was  written 
down,  and  like  the  laws,  and  other  public  documents, 
laid  up  in  the  Geranium  under  the  care  of  the  Quaestor. 
To  make  a decree  of  theAState  valid,  it  was  requisite 
that  a certain  number  of  members  should  be  present 
(numerus  legitimus,  Senatus  frequens).  Those  who 
absented  themselves  without  reasonable  cause,  or 
grossly  violated  the  standing  orders,  might  be  punished 
by  a pecuniary  fine  or  the  distraint  of  their  goods 
( pignora  caedere).  The  Tribunes  could  ^dissolve  the 
decrees  of  the  Senate  by  their  intercessio.  A resolu- 
tion passed  by  an  insufficient  number,  or  stopped  by 
the  interposition  of  the  Tribunes,  was  termed  Senatus 
auctoritas. 


C . Magistratus.7 

§ 11.  History  of  the  Magistracy. 

91.  In  ancient  times  the  supreme  executive  and 
judicial  authority  was  possessed  by  the  Kings, 'although 
probably  restricted  by  the  Senate  and  the  popular 

6 This  was  merely  an  expression  of  opinion,  which  he  was  allowed  to 
retract  when  he  actually  voted,  e.  g.  Silanus  in  Sallust.  Cat,  cap.  51. 

7 The  word  “ Magistratus”  signifies  both  the  office  and  the  person 
who  holds  it. 


54 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIOUITIES. 


assemblies they  were  the  leaders  of  the  army,  and 
performed  several  religious  rites,  which  were  after- 
wards intrusted  to  the  Rex  sacrif  cuius.  For  their 
support  they  had  an  allotment  of  the  agerpublicus,  of 
which  the  Campus  Martins,  which  after  the  expulsion 
of  the  Kings  became  public  property,  formed  a part. 
We  read  also  of  a Tribunus  Celgrum  and  a Prcefectus 
urbi ; but  very  little  is  known  of  these  offices.  After 
the  expulsion  of  the  Kings  (b.  c.  509),  two  Consuls^ 
were  appointed,  whose  authority  at  first  was  almost 
equal  to  that  of  the  Kings.  92.  But  as  the  power  of 
the  Plebeians  increased,  there  arose  a new  office  called 
the  Tribuneship  of  the  People  (b.  c.  494),  and  in  con- 
sequence of  the/increase  of  territory  and  population,  it 
was  necessary  gradually  to  divide  the  public  business. 
The  management  of  the  lists  of  citizens,  and  the  care 
of  the  public  morals,  the  administrations  of  justice  and 
of  police,  were  separated  from  the  Consulship,  and 
committed  to  officers  especially  appointed  to  those 
duties.  Thus  the  Censorship  was  created  b.  c.  444, 
and  the  Praetorship  and  iEdileship,  b.  c.  367.  For  the 
benefit  of  the  provincial  administration,  and  the  carry- 
ing on  of  war,  the  time  of  continuance  in  office  was 
often  prolonged  ( prorogare  imperium,  provinciam). 
Latterly  this  became  a regular  practice ; whence  the 
appointment  of  Proconsuls  and  Propraetors,  and,  on 
account  of  the  increased  amount  of  business,  the  aug- 
mentation in  the  number  of  several  magistrates,  such 
as  the  Praetors  and  Quaestors.  93.  Augustus  appro- 
priated to  himself  the  choice  of  Consuls,  Tribunes,  and 
Censors,  assumed  the  title  of  Pontifex  Maximus  ; and 
at  last,  under  the  name  princeps,  united  all  the  powers 
of  the  state  in  his  own  person.  In  the  time  of  the 
Emperors,  most  of  the  great  officers  retained,  it  is 
true,  their  names  and  outward  distinctions ; but  many 
changes  were  introduced,  and  unless  the  office  were 
held  by  the  Emperor  himself,  it  lost  most  of  its  actual 
authority.  New  magistrates  were  appointed  in  accor- 
dance with  the  actual  conditions  of  the  state;  such  as 
a Prcefectus  Urbi,  or  superintendent  of  police,  who 


POLITICAL  POWER. 


55 


was  afterwards  invested  with  the  supreme  criminal 
jurisdiction,  a Prcefectus  Prcetorio,  who  was  originally 
the  commander  of  the  standing  body  of  life-guards 
established  joy  Octavian  (Augustus),  but  after  the  time 
of  Tiberius,  possessed  considerable  influence  over  the 
government  and  the  administration  of  justice,  and  a 
Prefectus  Annonce,  or  superintendent  of  the  commissa- 
riat. 94.  From  the  times  of  Diocletian  and  Constan- 
tine, an  entirely  new  organization  of  the  government 
and-  public  offices  was  introduced,  in  which  the  traces 
of  antiquity  wTere  gradually  obliterated  by  the  adminis- 
tration and  titles  of  a court  ( consistorium , principis, 
comites,  the  higher  state  officers).  In  our  succeeding 
sections  we  shall  take  a closer  view  of  the  magistracy, 
particularly  under  the  Republic. 

§ 12.  Alagistracy  of  the  Republic — Its  character  and 
position. 

95.  The  magistrates  were  partly  ordinarii,  partly 
extraor dinar ii.  (To  the  ordinary  belonged  the  Con- 
sules ,s  Pr  adores,  Ccnsores,  JEdiles  Curules  et  Plebeii, 
Qucestores,  and  Tribuni  Plebis 0 although  the  last, 
strictly  speaking,  were  not  magistrates.  ((The  extraor- 
dinary were  the  Interrex,  Dictator,  Magister  Equitum, 
and  Prcefectus  Urbi'„  who  under  peculiar  circumstances 
undertook  the  duties  of  the  magistracy.9  The  higher 
ordinary  magistrates  were  the  Consuls,  Praetors,  Cen- 
sors, and  Curule  AEdiles,  all  of  whom  enjoyed  nobilitas, 
or  official  rank.  96.  If  we  compare  the  Roman  magis- 
tracy with  that  of  more  modern  states,  we  perceiveca 
striking  difference)  For  example,  the  offices  were  not, 
as  in  our  day,  a provision  for  the  holders,  but  mere 
honorary  distinctions  ( honores ),  with  which  they 

9 To  this  class  belong  also  the  Decemviri  legibus  scribendis,  and  the 
Tribuni  Militum  consulari  potestnte,  who  were  placed  at  the  head  of 
the  state  for  a definite  period. 

9 To  these  we  may  add,  although  somewhat  different,  the  temporary 
commissions  given  to  individuals  for  some  particular  purposes,  such  as  the 
establishing  a colony,  or  the  administration  of  provincial  affairs  in  times 
of  scarcity. 


56 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


were  invested  by  popular  election ; and  which  were 
not  only  without  remuneration,  but  in  some  cases,  as 
that  of  the  iEdileship,  entailed  a considerable  expense, 
it  was  only  when  the  majesty  of  the  people  was  to  be 
represented,  that  any  assistance  was  given  by  the  state 
to  the  magistrates  ; at  the  reception  of  foreign  ambas- 
sadors, for  instance,  or  when  they  travelled  abroad  with 
the  imperium,  or  as  bearers  of  any  public  commission ; 
on  which  occasions,  they  received  from  the  exchequer 
a sum  of  money  sufficient  for  their  outfit,  travelling 
expenses,  and  support : but  in  later  times  this  liberality 
was  sometimes  abused  by  persons  who  drew  the  stjite 
allowance  when  travelling  on  private  business.  97/  In 
the  latter  days  of  the  Republic/) the  administration  of 
the  provinces  was  also  extremely  lucrative.  Another 
difference  (was,  in  the  time  for  which  they  held  the 
appointment.  During  the  Republicans  was  only  one 
year,  with  the  exception  of  the  Censorship, Which  was 
held  at  first  for  five  years,  Wd  afterwards, /for  a year 
and  a half.  By  allowing  so  short  a time,  the  Romans 
hoped  to  secure  their  freedom,  and  promote  activity  in 
the  public  offices.  At  a later  period,  however,  the  in- 
crease of  their  dominion  rendered  it  necessary  that  the 
time  of  continuing  in  office  in  the  provinces  should  be 
extended.  A third  distinction,  which  strikes  us  very 
forcibly,  was  the  indifference  of  the  state1  with  regal'd 
to  the  qualifications  of  her  magistrate^)  no  proof  of 
capacity  being  required  previously  toentering  on  the 
office,  and  its  continuance  being  too  short  to  teach  any 
practical  knowledge  of  business.  Within  no  very  con- 
siderable space  of  time  the  same  individual  might  run 
through  the  whole  course  of  official  appointments,  civil 
as  well  as  military.  98.  We  can  only  explain  this  by 
supposing,  that  in  those  days  the  act  of  government 
was  more  simple  than  at  present : many  arrangements, 
which  are  now  matters  of  state,  being  left  to  private 
activity,  and  many  of  the  details  being  intrusted  to 
paid  men  of  business.  Lastly,  the  universal  interest 
in  public  affairs  which  belongs  to  a republican  form  of 
government,  the  great  publicity,  and  the  concentration 


POLITICAL  POWER. 


57 


of  all  the  functions  of  state  at  Rome,  rendered  the 
necessary  preparation  easier  to  the  candidates,  and 
qualified  the  people  for  the  prudent  exercise  of  their 
elective  franchise.  On  extraordinary  occasions,  such 
as  the  choice  of  a Dictator,  and  the  election  of  Cicero 
to  the  Consulship,  great  foresight  was  employed.  In 
matters  of  great  importance,  the  magistrates  were 
assisted/by  a consilium]  e.  g.  the  Consuls  by  tlqe  Senate, 
the  provincial  officers  (by  the  nearest  Senator;?;  (Sallust^ 
Jugur.  c.  62),  and  the  general  ^by  his  council  of  war.' 
The  inferior  officials  had  also  considerable  influence. 


99.  Until  the  time  of  Tiberius)  the  people  chose 
, their  own  magistrates.  At  first  it  was  necessary  that 
they  should  be  Patricians)) but  at  a later  period  it  was 


^considered  sufficient  thar  they  were  free  horn.  : The 
Plebeian  office&(jtheTribuneship  of  the  people^imid  the 
Plebeian  AMilbsrfip)bpould  not  be  held  by  Patricians. 
If  a Patrician  desirhu  to  fill  one  of  these  offices/  it  was 
necessary  for  him  to  be  admitted  by  adoption  into  a 
Plebeian  family)  as  in  the  case  of  Clodius.  The  offices 
were  sought  for  and  held  in  the  following  order : 


uccsior,  Tribunus  or  JEdilis,  Prcetor,  Consul,  Cen- 


sor\  Originally  it  was  a necessary  qualification  for 
office^  that  the  candidate  should  have  served  ten  years 
in  the  arrnyA  afterwards  a certain  age  was  required/) 
which  was  ffixed  by  the  lex  Villia  annalis  (b.  c.  189) 
at  twenty-seven  (or  thirty-one)  for  the  Quaestorship; 
Thirty-seven  for  the  AEdileship,  forty  for  the  Praetor- 
ship,  mid  forty-three  for  the  Consulship,  ( consul  suo 
ftinno,  i.  e.  elected  as  soon  as  he  was  eligible) . 100. 

j^All  candidates  for  offices  ( candidati , so  called  from 
their  toga  Candida)  were  required  to  give  in  their 


names) {nomen  profiteri ) to  the  magistrates  who  pre- 
sided in  the  comitia ) in  order  that  their  qualifications 
might  be  examined;  and  at  the  same  time  they  endeav- 
ored to  secure  votes  by  recommending  themselves  to 
the  people  ( ambire , ambitio,  ambitus,  prensare).  In 

3* 


§13.  The  subject  continued. 


68 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


the  arly  times  the  magistrates  generally  entered  on 
theii  office  ( inire  magistratum)  on  the  first  of  January! 
with  the  exception  (of  the  Tribunes  of  the  People;  who 
commenced  their  duties  in  December.  ■ Between  the 
election  and  their  entrance  on  office,  they  were  termed 
designati.  At  their  investment  the  auspices  were 
held,  and” an  oath  administere.dYyMr«re  in  leges).  101. 
> one  could  hold  two  of  thd  higher  offices  at  once, 
nor  be  re-appointed  to  the  same  within  ten  years?) 
Some  of  these  regulations  (were  relaxed  on  special 
occasions)  ( legibus  solvi).  vThus  Scipio  Africanus 
minor  was  chosen  Consul  the  first  time1  in  his  thirty- 
seventh  year(B.  c.  147),  on  account  of  the  Carthaginian 
war,  and  the  second  time,  without  being  a candidate 
for  the  office  (b.  c.  134)  on  account  of  the  Numantian 
war.  C.  Gracchus  was  chosen  a second  time  Tribune 
of  the  People  without  canvassing  (b.  c.  122),  and  Ma- 
rius, the  second  time  Consul  (b.  c.  104)  during  his 
absence  on  account  of  the  Cimbrian  w^ats 

V 

§ 14.  Of  their  authority  and  its  limits. 

102.  The  general  term  for  magisterial  authority  is 
potestas  (e.  g.  Trihynus  Militum  consulari  potestate  ; 
tribunicia  potestasff)  The  power  of  the  Roman  magis- 
trates within  their  own  jurisdiction  was  very  consider- 
able^) \They  had  the  right  of  publishing  edicts  each 
within  tbe  province  of  his  own  office,  of  taking  the 
auspices  (with  the  exception  of  the  Proconsuls  and 
Propraetors),  and  of  holding  condones.  As  a general 
rule  Comitia  and  meetings  of  the  Senate  could  only  be 
held  by  the  higher  magistrates  ;>  the  Censor, ^however, 
could  not  call  the  Senate  together,  and  nis  official 
intercourse  with  the  people  was  confined  to  tlje  public 
meetings.  Of  the  inferior  magistrates,  only\tJie  Tri- 
bunes) on  account  of  their  peculiar  position  in  the 
statepdiad  the  right  of  assembling  the  Senate.  The 
magistrates  had  also  the  power  <)f  enforcing  their 
authority /by  the  infliction  of  fmesj  (rnulctam  dicere). 
103.  The  nigher  officers  enjoyed  the  vocatio,  that  is. 


POLITICAL  POWER. 


5 


the  right  of  summoning  any  absent  person  before  them 
by. virtue  of  their  office  ; and  the  inferior  ones,  such 
as/the  Tribunes,  possessed  the  prehensio,  that  is,  the 
right  pf  arresting  any  one  who  was  present/.  A magis- 
trate/could not  be  cited  before  a tribunal  during  the 
continuance  of  his  officd;1 *  but  in  very  strong  cases, 
such  as  that  of  Lentulus  in  Catiline’s  conspiracy,  he 
was  compelled/to  abdicate  previously  to  his  trial J As 
a general  rule,  nowever,  he  was  irremovable  Jairtrnight 
voluntarily  retire  from  office  if  the  auspices  had  not 
been  correctly  taken  i (abdicare  se  magistratu).  The 
highest  official  authority,  which  belonged  to  me  Con- 
suls and  Praetors,  was  called  imperium,  a term  origi- 
nally expressive  of  a military  command,  but  afterwards 
used  for  the  right  agendi  cum  populo,  and  of  compel- 
ling obedience.  104.  The  impenum  was  committed 
to  the  magistrates/by  a lex  curiatcn  but  could  not  be 
exercised/by  the  pro-magistrates  at  Rome1)  Thus  if  a 
pro-magistrate  who  enjoyed  the  imperium  in  one  of 
the  provinces  .desired  to  have  a triumph  at  Rome,  it 
was  requisite  (that  the  imperium,  strictly  so  called, 
should  be  conferred  on  him  for  that  day  by  a plebisci- 
tumj  Security  against  malversation  in  office  was 
afforded ! by  the  provocatio  to  the  peopte^)  by  the  in- 
tercession^ ither  of  a Tribune  of  the  People,  or  of  a 
magistrate  of  equal  or  superior  rank,  and  by  the  re- 
sponsibility to  which  the  magistrates  were  subject 
after  the  expiration  of  their  term  of  office.  The  in- 
signia of  the  higher  magistrates,  were  the  toga  prce- 
texta  (329),  sella  curulis3  and  lictors  with  fasce\(l‘S0) 

1 7*  The  proposition,  thus  generally  stated,  is  at  least  very  doubtful. 
Compare  amongst  others  Drumann,  Hist,  of  Rome,  I.  p.  62.” — Osen- 
Irliggen. 

a The  provocatio  existed  in  the  time  of  the  Kings,  but  was  subse- 
quently confirmed  by  a lex  Valeria  (b.  c.  509),  and  two  more  recent 
leges  Valeria  (b.  c.  449  and  300).  Under  this  head  may  be  classed  the 
Porcian  and  other  laws,  by  which  corporal  punishment  was  abolished, 
and  banishment  substituted  for  death,  and  a lex  Sempronia  introduced  by 
Gracchus,  which  enacted  that  no  judgment  should  fall  on  a Roman 
citizen’s  caput,  injussu  populi. 

° The  Sella  curulis  was  the  chair  of  state,  resembling  a camp-stool, 
but  with  legs  of  a double  curvature.  It  was  inlaid  with  ivory  (hence 


60 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


before  those  who  had  the  imperium.  The  ex-magis- 
trates ( censorii , consulares,  prcetorii , cedilitii , quaes- 
torii)  enjoyed  a rank  corresponding  to  that  of  the 
offices  which  they  had  filled. 

§15.  Consuls,  Decemviri,  Military  Tribunes  with 
. consular  authority. 

105.  The  original  name  of  the  Consuls  seems  to 
have  been  Prcetores^  They  were  the  highest  office  in 
the  state,  and  exercised  authority  over  all  other  magis- 
trates, except  the  Tribunes/  From  them  the  year  was 
named';  (They  took  the  lead  in  the  deliberations  of  the 
Senate  and  the  popular  assemblies,  carried  their  de- 
crees into  effect,  and  transacted  the  most  important 
occasional  business,  but  after  the  introduction  of  the 
Prsetorship  had  little  to  do  with  the  ordinary  adminis- 
tration of  justice.  In  time  of  war  they  levied  the 
army,  and  partly  chose  the  Tribunes,  Centurions,  and 
as  many  legati  as  had  been  voted  by  the  Senate.  If 
there  were  only  one  war,  the  command  was  generally 
divided.  In  the  event  of  there  being  more  than  one, 
the  apportionment  took  place  either  by  lot  ( sortilio ), 
or  by  verbal  agreement)  (comparatio) . If  necessary 

on  account  of  the  war,  t'heir  term  of  holding  the  impe-  j 
riurn  was  extended  (prorogabatur).  100.  In  the  latter 
days  of  the  Republic  they  commanded  the  army,  not 
in  their  year  of  Consulship,  but  in  the  following  year  as 
Proconsuls.'  If  a Consul  died  during  his  year  of  office,  ! 
another  was  chosen  in  his  place  ( subrogatus , suffectus). 
The  distinctive  mark  of  the  consular  dignity  was 
twelve  lictors  with  fasceff  130),  who  preceded  each  ; 
Consul  in  turn  for  a month  (the  other  being  preceded  ! 
only  by  an  accensus  :( but  in  the  camp,  each  Consul 
had  the  fasces In  tile  time  of  the  Emperors,  the 

ebur  curule)  ; its  name  is  derived  from  its  being  fitted  to  be  carried  in  a jj 
carriage  (currus),  when  it  was  folded  up.  The  derivation  from  curia  i| 
is  less  probable,  as  curulis  is  the  regular  adjective  from  currus : e.  g.  | 
equi  curul.es  (in  the  Circensian  games),  curules  triumphi,  &c. 

f 4 The  meaning  of  Consul  Major  is  uncertain  : (1)  either  the  Consul  ( 
wno  was  elected  by  the  greater  number  of  votes  : or  (2)  the  elder  : or 
(3)  the  Consul  who  had  the  fasces  (but  this  would  make  the  term  belong  !| 


POLITICAL  POWER. 


61 


Consulship  lost  its  importance)  several  were  chosen 
every  year,  who  continued  only  a few  months  in  office 
( ordinarii — suffecti).  After  the  partition  of  the  em- 
pire, the  Consuls  were  not  doubled)  but  were  chosen 
sometimes  in  the  East,  sometimes'  in  the  West,  and 
now  and  then  one  in  each.  The  last  occasion  on 
which  a private  individual  filled  the  office  was  in  the 
year  a.  d.  54  lJ  107.  The  succession  of  Consuls  was 
twice  interrupted  for  a time.)  In  the  first  instance  by 
the  Decemviri /who  were  chosen  in  b.  c.  451,  for  the 
purpose  of  framing  a legal  code,  the  other  offices  and 
the  provocatio  (104)  being  meanwhile  suspended. 
This  office  was  filled  in  the  first  year  by  Patricians, 
in  the  second  year  half  of  them  were  Plebeians.  The 
second  interruption  was  caused  by  the  disputes  which 
arose  in  consequence  of  the  Canuleian  project  of  law 
(b.  c.  445)  respecting  the  admission  of  Plebeians  to 
the  Consulship!  It  was  agreed  on  this  occasion  that 
J'ribuni  Mi  mum  consular  i potest  ate  should  be  created, 
'and  that  Plebeians,  as  well  as  Patricians,  should  be 
'eligible  to  the  office.  This  form  continued,  with  the 
occasional  revival  of  the  Consulship,  until,  the  passing 
of  a law  proposed  by  Licinius  (b.  c.  367),  which  pro- 
vided that  one  of  the  Consuls  should  be  chosen  from 
the  Plebeians.  The  number  of  these  Tribunes  was  at 
first  three  or  four,  and  subsequently  sis.’! 

§ 16.  Praetors. 

108.  The  Prsetorship  must  be  viewed  as  a branch 
of  the  Consulship,  which  in  the  course  of  time,  when 
business  increased,  was  separated  from  that  office. 
This  happened  in  the  year  b.  c.  367,  and  is  generally 
represented  by  historians  in  the  light  of  an  indemnifi- 
cation to  the  Patricians  for  being  compelled  to  share 

alternately  to  both).  Gellius  says  that  by  the  lex  Julia  the  title  was 
conferred  upon  the  one  who  had  the  most  children,  including  those  whc 
aad  fallen  in  war.  Niebuhr  thinks  it  belonged  originally  to  him  who  was 
ehosen  from  the  tribe  of  highest  rank,  the  Kamnes. 

6 In  Liv.  5.  1.  eight  are  mentioned,  an  account  which  can  hardly  be 
torrect. 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


<52 

the  Consulship  with  the  Plebeians.  How  closely  this 
magistracy  resembled  the  Consulship  may  be  inferred 
from  the  fact,  that  the  Praetors  were  the  deputies  of 
the  Consuls  in  the  Senate  and  the  Assemblies  of  the 
people,  and  that  they  sometimes  even  took  the  lead  in 
questions  relating  to  war,  and  commanded  the  armies 
of  the  state  ; and  also  from  the  circumstance  that  the 
office  in  the  earlier  times  was  often  filled  by  Consu- 
lares.  109.  The  especial  province  of  the  Praetor  was 
the  administration  of  justice.  At  his  entrance  on  the 
office,  he  published  an  edict  in  which  the  rules  of  law 
by  which  he  intended  to  be  guided  were  set  forth,  and 
older  edicts  altered  or  modified  as  occasion  required. 
Arrangements  were  also  made  by  him  for  the  admimsC 
tration  of  justice,  and  judges  or  jurors  chosen  ( judices  : 
dare).  It  is  worth  observing,  nevertheless,  that  in 
appointing  to  this  office,  no  regard  was  had  to  the 
legal  knowledge  of  the  candidate,  who  was  obliged,  if 
he  did  not  possess  it,  to  obtain  the  assistance  of  regu- 
larly educated  jurists.  , The  Prsetor  had  also  the  man-; 
agement  of  the  costly1  ludi  A'pollonares. . In  the  year 
b.  c.  242  the  office  was  divided,  the  Prcetor  urbanus 
being  charged  with  the  settlement  of  disputes  between 
citizens,  and  the  Prcetor  peregrinus  with  those  which1 
occurred  between  foreigners,  or  foreigners  and  citizens.:1 
By  the  edicts  of  the  former  they#  civile,  and  by  those' 
of  the  latter  the  jus  gentium  was  enlarged.6  Some-: 
times,  however,  the  duties  of  both  offices  were  dis- 
charged by  the  Prcetor  urbanus,  when  the  services  of 
the  peregrinus  were  required  in  the  camp.  110. 
When  Sicily  and  Sardinia  were  added  to  the  list  of 
Roman  provinces,  the  number  of  Praetors  was  raised 
to  four,  and  after  the  conquest  of  Spain  to  sik*  for  the 
especial  administration  of  the  provinces.  But  as  ir[ 
the  meantime  the  qucestiones  perpetuce  had  been  intro- 
duced (b.  c.  144),  which  were  committed  to  the  four 
Praetors,  they  generally  remained  at  Rome,  and  adminf 
istered  the  provinces  as  Propraetors.7  At  a later  perioc 

6 “ A very  doubtful  assertion.” — OsenbrUggeu.  j! 

1 From  the  time  of  Sulla  to  that  of  Caesar,  on  account  of  the  riumbe 


POLITICAL  POWER. 


6S 


their  number  was  raised  to  sixteen.  Under  the  Em- 
perors this  office  also  lost  its  importance,  its  duties 
being  restricted  for  the  most  part  to  the  management 
of  the  public  games.'  The  Praetors  had  lictors  with 
fasces  (130),  in  the  city  two,  and  in  the  provinces  six. 

§ 17.  Censors. 

111.  By  the  constitution  of  Servius  Tullius,  the 
supreme  magistrate  was  required  to  hold,  every  five 
years,:  a muster  of  the^citizen^for  the  purposes  of  taxa- 
tion 'and  conscription  (censum  agere).  In  the  days  of 
the  Republic  this  duty  yvas  discharged  by  the  Consuls ; 
but  in  the  year  b.  c.  443.)  an  especial  magistracy,  origi- 
nally patrician,  was  created,  viz.,  that  of  the  two  Cen- 
sors, who  continued  in  office  at  first  five  years,  and 
subsequently  a year  and  a half.  The  census,  however, 

, on  account  of  religious  scruples  jor  other  circumstances 
'.was  not  always  held  within  the  time  appointed  by  law. 
^The  Censor  had  no  concern  either  .with  the  adminis- 
tration of  justice  or  the  affairs  of  wain  and  consequently 
possessed  no  imperium)  and  with  the  exception  of  the 
registration,  had  no  right  to  deal  officially  either  with 
the  people  ( agere  cum  populo)  or  with  the  Senate ; still 
the  office  continued  to  be  one  of  great  influence  and 
importance  (Livy  4.  8.),  and  as  requiring  public  confi- 
dence amb  respect,  wras  latterly  filled  exclusively1  by 
Consulares  and  could  only  be  held  once.3  112.  The 
quinquennial  census  was  held  according  to  a form  pre- 
viously settled  by  the  Censors  in  the  villa  publica  on 
the  campus  Martiusj  Each  citizen  was,  required,  on 
pain  of  being  punislied  as  an  incejisus,  to  insert  his 
name  in  one  of  the  lists,  which  were  arranged  tributim. 
He  was  obliged  to  deliver  in  on  oath  a statement  of  his 
own  name  and  that  of  his  father)  his  age,  landed 
property,  and  the  rest  of  his  res  mancipi  (145)  but  not 

of  qucestiones,  special  judges  ( judices  qucEstionis ) were  appointed,  who 
were  not  magistrates.  Madv.  de  Ascon.  Ped.  p.  121. 

s W e have  only  a single  instance  of  a person’s  being  elected  a second 
time  to  the  Censorship. 


64 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


of  his  ready  money,  or  his  property  in  the  ager  pulh- 
cus  or  in  the  provinces.  No  debts  were  taken  into  the 
account.  A tax  was  then  impose  (^proportionate  to  the 
property,  and  sometimes  an  extraordinary  impost  might 
oe  laid  on  unmarried  persons,  and  increased  in  propor- 
tion to  the  expenditure.9  < 113.  To  these  duties  of  the 
Censor  was  added  the  censura  morum,  or  guardianship 
of  public  morals,  with  the  right  of  inflicting  the  penalty 
of  ignominy  (not  poena,  but  nota,  animadversio,  igno- 
minia),, /generally , on  those  who  were  guilty  of  impiety 
towards  their  family,;  perjury,  a disorderly  course  of 
life,  faithlessness  towards  clients,  extravagance,  refusal 
to  serve  in  the  army,  and  such  like  offences.  The 
penalties  were,  expulsion  from  the  Senate  ( senatu 
movere ),'  or  from  the  equestrian  order  ( equum  adimere; 
vende  equum ) ; the  punishment  expressed  by  the  term 
tribu  moveri,  which  means  either  removal  into  an  infe- 
rior tribus  (that  is,  into  one  of  the  city  tribes),  or  was 
equivalent  to  in  Cceritum  tabulas  referri ,2  i.  e.  to  being 
reduced  to  the  condition  of  a civis  sine  suffragio ; and 
lastly  cerarium  facer e,  which  probably  means  a discre- 
tionary increase  of  the  offender’s  property  tax.  114. 
In  the  earlier  times  all  citizens  were  personally  enrolled 
at  Rome ; but  when  all  the  Italians  were  admitted  to 
the  privileges  of  citizenship,  the  provincial  lists  were 
forwarded  from  the  country  to  Rome.  Either  of  the 
Censors  might  reverse  the  judgments  of  the  other,  and 
the  Censors  of  the  following  lustrum 3 might  remove  the 
ignominia  inflicted  by  their  predecessors.  If  one  of 
them  died,  his  colleague  was  obliged  to  resign  his  office. 
115.  An  especial  branch  of  the  Censor’s  duty  was  the 
care  of  the  public  buildings  and  places  of  recreation, 
and  the  farming  out  of  the  public  revenues,  and 

3 This  part  of  the  Censor’s  duty  ceased  of  course  with  the  removal 
of  the  property  tax  b.  c.  167. 

1 In  the  year  b.  c.  70,  sixty-four  members  were  expelled  the  Senate. 

2 After  the  Gallic  war  a hospitium  was  concluded  with  the  inhabitants 
of  Caere  in  Etruria,  who  were  afterwards  made  cites  sine  suffragio. 

3 Lustrum  = spatium  quinquennale  ; it  was  properly  the  name  of 
the  great  national  purification  solemnized  every  five  years,  at  the  closing 
of  the  census. 


■ POLITICAL  POWER. 


65 


making  contracts  subject  to  the  authority  of  the  Sen- 
ate. For  taking  these  contracts  and  providing  the 
necessary  security,  large  companies  were  formed  con- 
sisting of  the  richest  citizens,  especially  the  Knights 
( publicani ).  After  the  year  b.  c.  50,  no  more  Censors 
were  chosen  by  the  people,  nor  was  any  census  held. 
During  the  imperial  reigns  the  office  was  sometimes 
discharged  by  the  Emperors  themselves,  but  neverthe- 
less fell  gradually  into  disuse. 

§ 18.  Curule  and  Plebeian  /Ediles. 

116.  Contemporaneously  with  the  Tribunes  of  the 
People  two  Plebeian  iEdiles  were  also  created  to  act 
as  managers  of  the  plebeian  religious  festivals,  and  as 
assistants  of  the  Tribunes.  At  a later  period,  when 
the  Licinian  law  was  passed  (b.  c.  367),  two  Curuie 
.ZEdileships  were  added,  which  from  the  beginning  seem 
to  have  been  held  alternately  by  Patricians  and  Ple- 
beians. The  duties  of  the  rEdiles  were  the  manage- 
ment of  the  public  games,  superintendence  of  public 
buildings,  squares,  water-courses,  streets,  and  roads,4 
administration  of  the  police,  and  punishment  of  certain 
offences  against  its  rules.  They  were  also  charged 
with  the  duty  of  securing  a sufficient  supply  of  grain5 
and  other  wholesome  provisions,  and  of  inspecting  and 
settling  weights  and  measures.  117.  The  difference 
between  the  Plebeian  and  Curule  ^Ediles  was  unim- 
portant; it  would  seem,  however,  that  the  latter,  who 
were  permitted  to  bear  the  same  insignia  as  the  higher 
magistrates  (104)  were  charged  with  the  management 
of  the  ludi  magni  maximi  or  Romani  (290),  and 
Megalesii  (289)  From  the  time  of  the  first  Punic 
war  these  games  were  celebrated  principally  at  the 
expense  of  the  iEdiles  themselves,  and  towards  the 
end  of  the  Republic,  enormous  sums  were  expended  as 
a means  of  recommending  them  to  higher  offices. 

4 What  relation  they  bore  in  this  particular  to  the  Censorship  is  net 
distinctly  known. 

5 In  extraordinary  cases  a Prafectus  annoncs  was  chosen. 


66  MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIOUITIES. 

Cffisar  added  iwo  JKdiles  Cereciles.  We  hear  nothing 
of  this  office  after  the  third  century. 

§ 19.  Qucssiors. 

118.  The  origin  of  this  office  is  unknown.  It  is 
supposed  by  some  to  have  been  established  in  the  time 
of  the  Kings.  Thus  much  we  know,  that  the  Quaes- 
tors were  chosen  at  first  by  the  Consuls,  but  after  the 
year  b.  c.  447  by  .the  people  and  that  the  office  origi- 
nally1 was  patrician,- and  filled  by  two  persons,  to  whom 
two  others  were  subsequently  added.  These  last 
accompanied  the  Consuls  in  their  campaigns.  After 
the  complete  subjugation  of  Italy  (since  b.  cl  265),'  four 
new  officers  were  added  for  Italy.  Sulla  increased  the 
number  to  twenty.  119.  The  city  Quaestors  kept  the 
accounts  of  the  exchequer  ( cerarium ),  and  managed  its 
receipts  and  expenditure  under  the  direction  of  the 
Senate ; they  also  received  foreign  ambassadors,  and 
had  charge  of  the  standards  and  archives  of  the  state, 
which  were  kept  in  the  cerarium.  The  provincial 
Quaestors  managed  the  financial  affairs  of  the  provinces, 
provided  for  the  transmission  of  coin  to  Rome,  kept 
the  accounts  of  the  war  department,  and  were  intrusted 
with  the  custody  and  sale  of  the  booty.  Latterly  their 
provinces  were  assigned  Jto  them  by  lot.  The  Quaes-^ 
torship  was  the  first,  stepffo  the  higher  offices  of  state, 
and  gave  its  holder  the  right  of  attending  the  meetings 
of  the  Senate,  the  vacancies  of  which  were  latterly  in 
a great  measure  filled  up  from  the  Quaestors.  The 
office  continued)  with  many  alterations  through  the 
imperial  reigns  ; but  the  city  Qusestorsliip  was  reduced 
to  insignificance  by  losing  the  management  of  the 
cerarium.  120.  Under  the  Quaestors,  in  ancient  times, 
were  the  Tribuni  cerarii,  who  were  charged  with  the 
payment  of  the  soldiers.  They  seem  to  have  been 
private  citizens,  with  a fixed  and  not  inconsiderable 
census,  who  were  intrusted  with  the  collecting  and  dis- 
bursing, or  perhaps  only  with  disbursing  the  pay  of  the 
soldiers.  This  office  had  disappeared  ip^Cato’s  time, 


POLITICAL  POWER. 


67 


and  the  name,  which  was  afterwards  revived,  was  used 
in  a different  sense.  /, 

§ 20.  Tribunes  of  the  People. 

121.  When  the  people,  excluded  from  public  em- 
ployments and  overwhelmed  with  debt,  rose  against 
the  Patricians  in  the  year  b.  c.  494, 6 a compromise  was 
effected  by  the  establishment  of  an  office  called  the 
Tribuneship  of  the  People,  which  was  pronounced 
sacrosanctus  (i.  e.  the  person  of  the  holder  was  declared 
inviolable ■)  by-  a lex  sacrata.7  The  number  of  the  Tri- 
bunes wits  at  first  two  or  five,)  but  after  the  year  b.  c. 
457,  it  was  raised  to  ten;  all  of  whom,  by  a later 
enactment,  must  be  chosen  from  the  people;  no  right 
of  co-optation  being  reserved  to  the  Tribunes  them- 
selves. They  were  not  strictly  speaking  magistrates,) 
nor  had  they  any  especial  office  in  the  government,  but 
were  simply  bound  to  protect  the  Plebeians  by  their 
intercessio  against  the  encroachments  of  the  Patricians) 
122.  They  soon,  however,  arrogated  to  themselves  the 
right  of  summoning  the  Patricians  before  the  tribunal 
of  the  people,  and  by  degrees  assumed  the  initiative  in 
the  proposap  of  laws  at  the  Comitia  tributa.  When 
the  distinction  between  Patricians  and  Plebeians  lost 
its  political  importance,  the  object  of  the  intercessio 
was  to  oppose  those  encroachments  on  the  rights  of 
the  people,  which  were  attempted  by  the  government 
through  decrees  of  the  Senate,  or  exhibited  in  the  con- 
duct of  public  officers ; and  this  intercessio  was  some- 
times enforced  by  confiscation  or  arrest.  They  had 

8 This  was  the  first  secession.  The  second  took  place  in  the  year 
b.  c.  449,  in  consequence  of  the  dissatisfaction  caused  by  the  government 
of  the  Decemviri ; the  third  in  the  year  b.  c.  286,  on  account  of  the  op- 
pressed condition  of  the  people. 

7 Leges  sacratcE  were  certain  laws  which  provided  that  those  who 
transgressed  them  should  be  sacri.  They  were  especially  such  as  were 
enacted  to  secure  the  sanctity  of  the  people’s  rights,  e.  g.  the  provision 
that  the  Tribunes  of  the  People  should  be  Plebeians,  or  that  proceedings 
affecting  the  caput  of  a Roman  citizen  should  only  take  place  in  the 
Comitia  centuriata. 


68 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


the  right  of  attending  the  meetings  of  the  Senate^and 
of  calling  it  together.  One  Tribune^could  nullify  the 
decisions  of  the  rest  by  his  intercession  a right  which 
often  afforded  to  the  opposite  party  the  means  of  ren- 
dering the  intercessio  of  the  Tribunes  inoperative. 
123.  Tiberius  Gracchus,  however,  ventured  to  propose 
to  the  people  the  deposition  of  a protesting  Tribune. 
Their  authority  extended  only  1000  passus  beyond  the 
boundaries  of  the  city,  nor  could  they  be  absent  from 
Rome  one  whole  day.  No  Patrician,  nor  any  citizen 
whose  father  was  still  alive  and  had  filled  a Curule 
office,  was  eligible  to  this  dignity,)  With  the  decline  of 
public  morals  abuses  in  the  intercessio  often  occurred, 
e.  g.  in  the  case  of  Beebius  in  the  Jugurthine  war.- 
(Sallust.  Jugurth.  cap.  34.)  Sulla  deprived  the  Tri- 
bunate of  its  most  important  privilege,  the  initiative  in 
proposing  laws,  and  only  left  it  the  auxilii  latio ; but 
these  restrictions  only  continued  to  the  Consulate  of 
Pornpey  and  Crassusj  (b.  c.  70).  Augustus)  received 
the  Tribunicia  potestas,  with  which  succeeding  Em- 
perors were  also  invested.  /The  Tribunate  was  re- 
tained, but  without  the  possession  of  any  influence  or 
authority. 

§21.  Inferior  Officers. 

124.  Among  these  we  may  reckon  the  Triumviri 
capitales,  /who  were  charged  with  the  execution  of 
police  ordinances,  the  discovery  of  offenders,  arrests, 
the  superintendence  of  prisons  and  exebntions,  and  the 
punishment  of  slaves  and  inferior  persons a the  Trium- 
viri monetales  (or  iii  Viri  AAAFF.  = imro,  argento. 
ceri  flando  feriundo),  who  superintended  the  coinage, 
which  generally  took  place  at  Rome ; four  Curatores 
viarum,  two  for  Rome,  and  two  for  the  immediate 
neighbourhood.  These  were  charged  with  the  con- 
struction of  roads : but  the  maintenance  of  the  great 
public  highways  was  let  by  contract  to  persons  ap- 
pointed by  the  Censors.  The  Decemviri  litibus  judi- 


This  does  not  seem  to  have  been  originally  the  case. 


POLITICAL  POWER. 


69 


candis.  All  these  officers  were  called  collectively  die 
Viginliviri.  Lastly,  the  Triumviri  nocturni,  or  super- 
intendents of  the  precautions  against  fire/ 

§ 22.  Extraordinary  Magistrates,  Dictator,  Interrex, 
Praefectus  urbi. 

125.  The  extraordinary  magistrates  were  those 
who,  under  peculiar  circumstances,  undertook  the 
functions  of  the  others.  A Dictator,  or  Magister 
Populi,  appears  to  have  been  chosen,  for  the  first  time, 
in  the  year/m  c.  50lJ^in  the  occasion  of  a dangerous 
Latin  war)  and  subsequently  was  often  elected  \dicta- 
torem  dicere)  during  foreign  wars  or  intestine  disturb- 
ances, and  sometimes  even  for  less  weighty  reasons, 
e.  g.  for  the  holding  of  Comitia,  conducting  the  public 
games,  and,  after  the  battle  of  Cannae, (for  the  purpose 
of  choosing  senators)*  (Originally  they  were  elected  at 
the  Comitia  curiatxk  on  the  recommendation  of  the 
Senate ; and  after  the  auspices  had  been  taken,  the 
newly-elected  magistrate  was  invested  with  the  impe- 
rium : at  a later  period,  the  Dictator  seems  to  have 
been  chosen  by  the  Senate  or  the  Consuls)  126.  He 
received,  or  chose  for  himself  as  an  assistant,  (a  Magis- 
ter equiturrPPMag.  equ.  dicere , cooptare),  with  ft  he  rank 
of  Praetofy  Originally,  the  Dictator  possessed  full 
kingly  power)  without  appeal  ( provocatio ),  and,  there- 
fore, had  twenty-four  lictores,  with  the  fasces  cum, 
securibus ; all  other  offices  were  suspended,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Tribunate\  The  Dictatorship,  how- 
ever, lasted  only  fix  montnsj  and  in  most  cases  was 
laid  down  at  the  end  of  a mdch  shorter  period,  as  soon 
as  the  affairs,  on  account  o,f  which  it  was  assumed, 
were  completely  settled.  The  office  was,  at  first, 
patrician  y but,  subsequently,  was  held  also  by  Ple- 
beians.) /At  a later  period,  its  power  was  circum- 
scribed) ahe  Tribunes  might  resist  the  abuse  of  the 
dictatorial  power,  and  some  of  the  higher  magistrates 
were  also  allowed  to  continue  in  office  under  the. Dic- 
tatorship. At  the  end  of  the  Republican  period/ Sulla 


70 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


antLGJsesai)  were  invested  with  a perpetual  Dictatorship. 
127.  Oir'the  death  of  a King,  according  to  Livy,  the 
r 1 ~ each  of  which  had  its  Presi- 


the  ten  were  charged  with  the  government,  but 
the  insignia  of  office. 


Senators  formed  Decuri 
dent 

only  one  had  the  insignia  of  office.  The  supremacy 
of  each  Decuria  lasted,  however,  only  five  days ; and, 
in  this  manner,  the  interregnum  was  continued  until 
a new  election.  In  the  time  of  the  Republic?  this 
practice  was  revived,  when  it  accidentally  happened 
that  no  magistrate  was  present  to  hold  the  Comitia) 
for  instance,  in  the  year  in  c.  444,  when  the  three  first 
Tribuni  Militum  consutari  potestate  were  compelled  to 
lay  down  their  offices  because  the  auspices  had  not 
been  correctly  taken,  The  Interrex  was  chosen  from 
the  Patricians]  ( interregem  creare,  prodere),  and  this 
office  always  remained  patrician.  /After  a long  inter- 
val we  again  find  Interreges)  towards  the  end  of  the 
Republic.  128.  We  have  already  mentioned  the  Prce- 
fectus  urbi,  or  Gustos  urbis,  a Viceroy  appointed  to 
act  during  the  absence  of  the  King.  Such  an  officer 
was  retained  in  the  time  of  the  Republic;  as  representa- 
tive of  the  Consul/ when  he  was  absent  at  the  fence 
Latince  (288).  /This,  however,  was  merely  the  ob- 
servance of  an  old  custom ; the  official  duties^of  the 
Consul  , being  discharged,  strictly  speaking,  ( by  the 
Praetor.)  Augustus  introduced  a police  magistracy 
under  This  name,  which,  by  degrees,  under  the  Em- 
perors, became  an  office  of  importance/) 

§ 23.  Inferior  Officers. 

129.  A number  of  inferior  officers}were  placed  at 
the  disposal  of  the  magistrates  for  the  transaction  of 
the  less  important  business.  The  most  considerable 
among  these  were  thp  Scribes,  ivho  formed  a corpo- 
ration) (orrfo)  which  ^yas  divided  into  Decurice,j  and 
paid  by  the  sfate.  The  places  in  this  corpofatiop 
were  saleable,  i At  first  they  were  not  much  esteemej| 
being  generally  libertinii  but  afterwards  the  office 
became  one  of  importance  ; and  on  account  of  their 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


71 


experience  and  knowledge  of  business,  the  Scribes 

I often  acquired  considerable  influence  over  the  less  ex- 
perienced magistrates)  They  were  distributed  among 
the  magistrates  by  lot  ( Scribes , Consulares,  Prcetorii, 
&c.).  130.  An  inferior  order  of  public  servants  were 

I the  Prcecones,  or  Heralds ; the  Lictors,  who  preceded 
the  higher  magistrates  (with  the  exception  of  the  Cen- 
sor and  Curule  lEdiles),  to  indicate  their  office  and 
execute  their  commands.9  Apparitores,  Accensi  (Ser- 

Ijeants),  Viatores  (Messengers).  The  magistrates  had 
also  servi  publici  to  wait  on  them. 

§ 24.  Commissioners  appointed  for  special  purposes. 

131.  Among  the  extraordinary  commissioners  ap- 
pointed for  the  temporary  management  of  particular 
affairs':  ( Curatores ),  we  find  the  Prcefecti  annonce ,l 
whqpwere  appointed  in  the  olden  time  to  regulate  the 
supply  of  grain  in  seasons  of  scarcity ; e.  g.  L.  Minu- 
cius,  in  the  year  u.  c.  440.  There  were  also*  Trium- 
viri, Quatuorviri,  Decemviri  coloniis  deducendis  or 

Iagris  dividendis,  Duumviri  cedibus  dedicandik  and 
many  similar  offices. 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 

A.  The  Laws  and  their  administration. 

§ 1.  Classification  of  the  Laws. 

132.  The  Roman  jurists  make  a distinction  be- 
tween jus  publicum,  i.  e.^the  regulations  observed  in 
the  Roman  state  for  the  maintenance  of  the  constitu- 

* They  bore  the  fasces,  or  bundle,  of  rods  tied  up  with  an  axe  ( secu - 
ris ),  before  the  Consuls  in  the  camp : but  in  the  city,  by  a law  of  P. 
Valerius  Publicola,  only  one  Consul  had  th e fasces,  and  neither  of  them 
the  secures.  In  the  camp  the  Praetor  had  six  Lictors,  with  the  fasces 
and  secures.  See  Diet.  Antiq.  s.  v.  fasces. 

1 The  office  of  Prcefeclus  arm  once  was  revived  in  the  person  of  Pom- 
pey,  and  was  re-established  as  a standing  employment  in  the  time  of  the 
Emperors. 


72 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


tion,  and  the  administration  of  public  affairs,  and  the 
jus  privatum.  To  the  latter  belongs  th ejus  civile,  or 
rights  peculiar  to  the  Romans,  and  the  jus  gentium,  or 
code  by  which  all  the  nations  known  to  the  Romans 
were  bound. 

§ 2.  Origin  of  the  Legal  Codes. 

133.  The  jus  civile  owes  its  origin  to  customs 
which,  at  a very  early  period,  were  sanctioned  by 
fixed  lawsAamong  which  the  most  ancient  were  those 
named  th e'teges  regies.2  The  groundwork  of  all  suc- 
ceeding legislation  was  the  decemviral  code  (b.  c.  451 
-450),  which  was  augmented  by  the  addition  of  stat- 
utes, leges  centuriatcs,  as  well  as  leges  tribunicice,  after 
the  plebiscita  (resolutions  of  the  popular  assembly)  had 
acquired  the  force  of  laws.  These  laws  were  drawn 
uplby  the  magistrateship  approved  by  the  people).3 
The  edicts  of  magistrates,  especially  of  the  Praetogrs, 
were  thus  an  important  element  in  the  legal  code,  and 
composed  what  was  called  the  jus  honorarium.  The 
Prcetor  urbanus,  for  Instance,  when  he  entered  on  his 
office,  published  the  regulations  which  he  intended 
to  adopt  during  his  administration.  134.  This  edict, 
it  is  true,  only  continued  in  force  tor  his  year  of  officer 
but  the  more  important  provisions  were  copied  froih 
one  edict  into  another,  and  after  the  time  of  Cicero, 
the  whole  might  be  considered  as  a settled  code,  which 
was  never  much  altered  in  any  essential  particulars 
We  must  not,  therefore,  look  on  the  edicts  as  merely^ 
capricious  regulations,  but  rather  as  ordinances  by 
which  the  more  ancient  provisions,  which  had  become 
obsolete,  were  repealed,  and  new  rules  introduced 
with  a regard  to  the  rights  of  custom  or  of  justice. 
Through  these  edicts  the  jus  civile  was  developed  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  jus  gentium  through  the  edicts 

s We  find  some  fragments  of  these,  as  well  as  of  the  laws  of  the 
Twelve  Tables,  in  ancient  writers. 

3 It  has  been  disputed,  whether  the  decrees  of  the  Senate  were  also 
a source  juris  civilis ; but  it  hardly  seems  probable  that  they  could  have 
had. 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


73 


of  the  Free  tor  peregrinus  and  the  provincial  authori- 
ties.4 The  development  of  the  common  law,  or  law 
of  custom,  was  also  promoted  by  judicial  decisions 
(res  judicata),  and  the  responsa  of  well-known  lawyers, 
who  became  important  personages  in  the  time  of  the 
Emperors,  when  respondents  were  publicly  appointed. 

§ 3.  Same  subject  continued — Under  the  Emperors. 

135.  From  the  time  of  Augustus,  the  decrees  of  the 
Senate,  and,  at  a subsequent  period,  the  imperial  ordi- 
nances ( constitutions  principum)  had  the  force  of 
law.  The  edicts  of  the  Praetors  were  gradually 
brought  to  a close,  but  the  writings  of  Jurists  became 
more  voluminous'  At  a later  period  many  collections 
of  royal  ordinances  were  made,  such  as  the  codex 
Theodosianus ,j  a work  compiled  under  the  sanction 
of  the  Emperor  Theodosius  II. ; together  wdth  its 
Appendix,  Novella.  138.  Under  Justinian  there  ap- 
peared a celebrated  collection  of  laws,  Ayhich  was 
divided  into  three  parts : — (1)  The  Codex,  an  assem- 
blage of  constitutions')  especially  those  which  related 
to  the  rights  of  private  persons.  (2)  The  Digestce,  or 
Pandecta,  a selection  from  the  writings  of  the  most 
renowmed  interpreters  of  the  law.  (3)  The  Institu- 
tiones,  a short  system  of  jurisprudence.  To  these 
were  subsequently  added  the  Codex  Repetitce  Precise 
tionis,  a revision  of  the  Codex  (which  was  thereby 
repealed.  O .),  and  the  Novella,  an  appendix  contain- 
ing later  ordinances.;  Almost  contemporaneously  with 
Justinian  there  appeared  collections  of  laws  also  in  the 
Western  Empire. 

§ 4.  Judicia  publica  and  privata. 

137.  The  administration  of  justice  extended  partly 
to  causae  public-a,  and  partly  to  causes  privates.  The 
causes  publica  had  reference  to  the  whole  state ; the 
■privata,  to  the  rights  of  individuals  or  private  offences, 

4 Very  doubtful.  O. 

4 


74 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


such  as  theft ; hence  the  divisions  of  trials  into  publico 
and  privata  judicia.  In  both  cases  it  is  a peculiarity 
of  Roman  law,  that  the  investigation  of  facts  and  the 
application  of  the  law  to  the  case  were  not,  as  they 
are  with  us,  the  business  of  the  same  person,  the 
Judge  ; but,  in  the  time  of  the  Republic  were  strictly 
separated  : the  legal  .question  being  examined  and  de- 
cided by  a magistrate!,  the  question  of  fact  by  judices 
( judges  hr  jurors),  who  were  no  magistrates,  but  pri- 
vate individuals.  The  proceeding  before  the  magis- 
trates is  styled  jusj\ hat  before  the  judices ( judicium. , 
It  was  not  essential  that  either  the  magistrate  who 
decided  the  law  of  the  case,  or  the  judges  who  pro- 
nounced in  the  question  of  fact,  should  be  lawyers  ; 
but  in  doubtful  cases  they  were  required  to  avail  them- 
selves of  legal  advice.5 

§ 5.  Magistrates. 

138.  The  administration  of  justice  was  at  first  in 
the  hands  of  the  Consuls),  but,  at  a jater  period,1  in 
those  of  the  PrsetorsT)  The  Praetor  settled  the  general 
mode  of  proceeding  by  his  Edict,  and  chose  judges  or 
jurors  for  the  trial  of  individual'  pauses.  After  the 
preliminary  proceedings  (in  jure),  he  gave  them  in- 
structions with  respect  to  the  factum,  on  which  he  left 
them  to  decide.  It  was  the  iPraetor’s  duty  to  provide 
that  their  sentence,  when  pronounced,  should  be  car- 
ried into  effect.  The  collective  name  for  the  exercise 
of  the  Praetor^  judicial  functions  was  jurisdictio , and 
it  was  indicated  by  the  words  do  (judices),  dico  (jus), 
addico  (judicatum).  He  presided  in  the  judicial 
Comitia.  The  Prcetor  urbanus  was  occupied  in  the 
settlement  of  lawsuits,  between  citizens  and  foreigners," 
or  between  one  foreigner  with  another.  139.  The 

s We  must,  however,  remember  that  legal  knowledge,  in  the  time  ot 
the  Republic,  was  more  widely  diffused  than  in  our  day.  The  laws  of 
the  Twelve  Tables  were  often,  in  the  olden  time,  learnt  by  heart  by 
schoolboys.  The  publicity  of  judicial  proceedings  contributed  also  to  the 
dissemination  of  this  knowledge. 


administration  of  the  state. 


75 


other  Praetors  were  charged  with  the  administration 
of  criminal  justice,  after  the  introduction  of  the  quces- 
tiones  perpetuce  (182).  In  the  municipal  towns  and 
colonies  justice  was  administered  in  a similar  manner 
by  a local  magistracy.'  In  the  provinces  the  jurisdic- 
tion was  exercised  by  the  Governor,  in  accordance 
with  a provincial  edict,  and  agreeably  to  the  peculiar 
circumstances  of  the  province.  In  the  days  of  the 
Empire  the  chief  magistrate  was  the  Emperor  himself, 
and  under  him  were  . the  Senate,"  th & Prcefectus  urbi, 
and  other  magistrates!)  The  difference  between  jus 
and  judicium  (137)  ceased  after  the  reign  of  Diocletian, 
when  the  magistrate  himself  was  the  judge  (both  of  the 
law  and  of  the /act). 


§ 6.  Indices . 

140.  The  investigation  of  the  factum,  and  the  judi- 
cial decision  consequent  on  such  investigation, (belong- 
ed to  private  judges,  or  rather  jurymen,  who  were 
chosen  by  the  Praetor  according  to  fixed  rules,  and 
divided  into  Decuria:  ( Judices  selecti ; in  certain  cases 
called  Arbitri  and  Recup eratores) .6  By  these  judges, 
public  as  well  as  private  questions  were  decided.  At 
first  they  were  Senators ; but  from  the  time  of  C. 
Gracchus,  the  office  was  held  by  Knights.  At  a later 
period,  many  attempts  were  made  to  restore  the  judi- 
cia  to  the  Senate,  but  this  was  not  effected  until  the 
time  of  Sulla.  Under  the  Consulate  of  Pompey  and 
Crassus  (b.  c.  70),  they  were  divided  among  the  Sena- 
tors, Knights,  and  Tribunii  cerarii.7  but  were  taken 
away  from  the  Tribuni  cerarii  by  Caesar.  In  the 
municipal  towns  and  provinces  the  judicial  functions 
were  also  discharged  by  citizens  selected  for  that 

6 See  note  on  this  chapter  in  the  Questions  upon  it. 

7 These  were  persons  chosen  from  the  class  of  Plebeians,  with  a 
qualification  of  200,000  H.S.  Their  name  is  borrowed  from  the  old 
Tribuni  cerarii,  who,  whilst  their  office,  which  had  long  been  discon- 
tinued, remained,  acted  as  assistants  to  the  Quaestors  ; and,  as  persons 
intrusted  with  considerable  sums  of  money,  were  necessarily  required  to 
be  of  proved  solvency. 


76 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


office.  141.  Besides  the  court  of  the  Praetor  we  read 
also  of  a centumviral  court,  which,  undoubtedly,  was  a 
very  ancient  tribunal  for  the  settlement  of  civil  ques- 
tions, especially  those  which  affected  the  rights  of 
property  and  inheritance.  We  are  not,  however, 
accurately  acquainted  with  the  extent  of  its  jurisdic- 
tion. The  number  of  the  judges  was  properly  one 
hundred  and  five  ; three  for  each  of  the  thirty-five 
tribus.  We  find  them  still  existing  in  the  days  of  the 
Empire.  Mention  is  also  made  of  a Decemviral  court 
{Decemviri  litibus  judicandis),  concerning  which  very 
dttle  is  known. 

§ 7.  Counsel — Advocati. 

142.  The  counsel  [{Patroni,  Oratored)  were  not 
necessarily  accomplished  jurists  any  mo^e  than  the 
other  legal  officers.  After  the  passing  of  the  lex  Cin- 
cia  de  donis  et  muneribus  (b.  c.  204),  they  were  not 
allowed  to  receive  money  or  presents ; at  a later 
period,  however,  the  salarium  became  general.  An- 
other class  of  counsel  were  the  Advocati,  friends  of 
the  contending  partied  who  attended  for  the  purpose 
of  displaying  their  sympathy,  and  assisting  the  litigants 
with  their  advice. 

§ 8.  Jurists. 

143.  The  Jurists  (Juriscqnsulti,  prudentes)  were 
all  of  them  originally\Patricians)  as  being  the  only  class 
acquainted  with  the  fasti  and  actiones,  or  ancient  forms 
of  process.  They  directed  the  Prcetor  as  well  as  the 
Judices)  gave  the  litigants  advice  and  rules  for  their 
conduct  {respondere  de  jure,  cavere),  and  compiled 
documents  {scribere).  Their  answers  had  often  an 
indirect  influence  even  on  legislation  ; and  this  influ- 
ence increased  considerably  in  the  days  of  the  Empire. 
In  the  reign  of  Augustus  there  arose  tv/o  schools  of 
Jurists,  differing  from  one  another  in  their  interpreta- 
tion of  the  law.  One  of  the  most  renowned  Jurists 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


77 


was(Jjaiu^)  who  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Antoninus. 
Many  important  fragments'  of  Ins  works  have  been 
discovered  by  Niebuhr. 


Private  Rights. 

§ 9.  Qualification. 

444.  The  chief  qualification  for  the  enjoyment  of 
civil  rights/ was  the  being  a free  Roman  citizen,' prone 
other  having  the  connubium  and  commercium.  Thus 
slaves  and  those  who  had  undergone  a capitis  demi- 
nutio,  maxima  and  media,  were  excluded  from  a parti- 
cipation in  these  privileges/)  By  the  same  rule,  for- 
eigners were  at  first  devoid  of  rights.  By  degrees, 
however,  the  severity  of  these  regulations  was  relaxed, 
especially  by  the  edict  of  the  Praetor,  and  more  liberal 
forms  were  introduced.  Another  qualification  for  the 
full  exercise  of  civil  rights/  was  independence  of  the 
severe  Roman  domestic  discipline  ( patria  potestas),  or 
being  sui  jurist  No  citizen  could  engage  in  any  legal 
process  until  he  had  attained  a certain  age;;  but  latter- 
ly, regulations  were  also  adopted  for  the  benefit  of 
minors,  .subject  to  such  restrictions  as  were  necessary 
for  thejr  protection. 

§ 10.  Classification  of  Private  Rights — Rights  of 
Things. 

145.  Private  rights  are  divided  by  Jurists  into 
rights  of  things,,  rights  of  obligation,  family  rights,  and 
rights  of  inheritance,  In  speaking  of  the  rights  of 
things  they  distinguish  between  occupation  ( possessio , 
or  the  usufruct  and  right  of  employment,  e.  g.  of  the 
ager  publicus)  and  actual  proprietorship  or  ownership 
(dominium) . 8 This  dominium  was  either  the  strict 
Quiritarian  right  of  property  (ex  jure  Quiritium),  or 
that  natural  right  which  even  peregrini  might  possess, 

" This  expression  was  not  in  use  so  early  as  the  time  of  Cicero. 


78 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


The  strict  right  of  ownership,  with  reference  to  res 
mancipi  (i.  e.  certain  possessions  which  in  the  olden 
time  were  considered  of  the  greatest  importance,  such 
as  Italian  freeholds,  slaves,  fourfooted  beasts,  &c.),9 
could  only  be  acquired  by  the  observance  of  certain 
stringent  forms.  146.  The  most  important  of  these 
forms,  all  of  which  presuppose  the  person  about  to 
acquire  the  dominium  to  be  in  possession  of  the  civitas, 
were:  (1)  mancipatio,  i.  e.  a symbolical  representation 
of  a purchase  in  presence  of  five  witnesses  (who  must 
be  puheres  (160  note),  and  a libripens.'  This  form 
was  used  also  in  adoption  and  emancipation.  A simi- 
lar legal  process,  by  means  of  a symbolical  weighing 
out  of  the  purchase-moneys (was  ca\\e,d(nexus  or  nexum x 
which,  however,  is  in  some  cases  distinguished  from 
mancipatio.  (2)  In  jure  cessio,  i.  e.  renunciation  in 
form  of  a process,  by  which  the  magistrate  assigned 
( addicere ) the  property  to  the  claimant.'2  (3)  Usucapio 
or  prescription  ( dominii  adeptio  per  continuationem 
possessionis,  Ulp.),  by  which  natural  possession  might 
become  Quiritarian.  The  period  that  established  pre- 
scription for  immoveable  property  was:  two  years,  for 
other  property  one  yean  The  regulations  respecting 
prescription  were  afterwards  altered. 

§11.  Rights  of  Obligation.  Obligation  by  Contract . 

147.  Obligcitio  is  such  a relation  between  two 
persons  as  gives  to  the  one  a certain  claim  on  the  other, 
or  entitles  him  to  require  the  performance  of  certain 
offices.  According  to  the  Roman  Jurists,  all  obligatory 
rights  owe  their  origin  either  to  contractus  or  delictuiih3 

9 Things  of  which  the  ownership  could  not  be  so  acquired,  were  nec 
mancipi. 

1 So  called  quia  libram  ancam  tenebat : the  purchaser  holding  the 
thing  to  be  purchased,  struck  the  scale  with  a brazen  coin,  asserting  that 
the  thing  was  now  his,  purchased  cx  jure  Quiritium  by  that  coin. 

2 The  three  parties  were  the  seller  (in  jure  cedens),  the  purchaser 
( vindicans ),  the  Prajtor  (addicens) . 

3 Many  matters  were  thus  the  subject  of  civil  proceedings,  which 
With  us  would  be  tried  in  a criminal  court,  e.  g,  theft  and  robbery. 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


79 


By  the  old  strict  Roman  law,  contracts  could  be  en- 
tered into  only  between  citizens,  and  were  confined  to 
certain  set  forms.  At  a later  period  they  were  entered 
into  also  hy  per egr ini  ex  jure  gentium , and  the  severity 
of  the  ancient  law  of  obligations  was  relaxed  by  the 
Edict  of  the  Praetor.  148.  The  principal  forms  for 
contracts  are  : (1)  nexus,  i.  e.  a transaction  in  presence 
of  witnesses  pei\  ces  el  libram  ; and  this  symbolical 
borrowing  had  the  force  of  an  actual  obligation,  which 
was  thereby  established.  By  the  laws  of  the  Twelve 
Tables  the  condition  of  debtors  who  bound  themselves 
by  nexus 4 was  one  of  great  hardship ; the  insolvent 
debtor  being  liable  to  be  put  to  death  or  sold  as  a slave, 
or,  as  was  more  commonly  the  practice,  being  compel- 
led to  work  out  theq  debt  in  his  creditor’s  household. 
In  the  year  b.  c.  326  a law  was  passed  exempting  the 
person  of  the  debtor  from  imprisonment  in  chains. 
At  a later  period,  however,  we  find  that  punishment 
again  inflicted  for  debt.  (2)  Verbal  contract  ( stipu - 
latio),  which  was  entered  into  by  means  of  a question 
from  the  creditor,  and  a corresponding  answer  on  the 
part  of  the  debtor  ( sponsio , responsio).  (3)  Written 
contracts,  which  must  be  in  the  Latin  language,  and 
have  especial  reference  to  the  entry  in  the  ledger  codex 
( tabulae ) accepti  et  expensi,  which  was  kept  by  every 
Roman  man  of  business,  and  was  admitted  as  evidence 
of  debt.  149. (_To  impose  such  an  obligation,  is  styled 
nomina  facer e ( scribere , perscribere),  and  consisted  in 
entering  the  debtor’s  name  with  the  sum  due  among 
the  disbursements.  This  entry  could  of  course  only 
take  place  with  the  acknowledgment  and  consent  of 
the  debtor  : but  we  are  ignorant  of  the  form  in  which 
such  consent  was  conveyed.  Payments  were  fre- 

4 The  difficulty  of  payment  was  greatly  increased  by  the  high  rate  of 
interest,  and  disturbances  often  arose  in  consequence.  A certain  rate  was 
at  first  fixed  by  the  Twelve  Tables  ; but  although  many  subsequent  laws 
were  also  enacted  for  the  purpose  of  diminishing  usurious  interest,  it  still 
continued  to  be  a fruitful  source  of  discontent.  In  the  provinces,  espe- 
cially in  later  times,  the  evil  reached  an  enormous  height.  An  extraor- 
dinary measure  for  the  diminution  of  debts  was  the  tabula  nova  in  the 
time  of  Sulla. 


80 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


quently  made  through  bankers)  (argentarii,  mensarii, 
trapezitee),  in' whose  hands  many  persons  deposited 
their  property,  and  whose  books  were  often  admitted 
as  evidence  in  legal  proceedings.  In  the  provinces 
obligations  were  incurred  by  syngrdpha}  that  is,  by  a 
covenant  signed  and  sealed  by  botlW creditor  and 
debtor. 


§ 12.  Obligation  by  delictum. 

150.  Obligations  ex  delictis  extended  generally 
speaking  to  furtum,  raplna , injuria,  damnum  injuria 
datum,  (1 ) Furtum  was  styled  manifestum,  when  the 
thief  was  taken  in  the  act;  .By  the  laws  of  the 
Twelve  Tables  such  an  offender  might  be  put  to  death 
with  impunity,  if  taken  in  the  night,  or  even  by  day, 
if  he  resisted. f In  any_case  he  might  be  handed  over 
to  the  owner  of  the  property,  and  kept  in  chains.  By 
the  praetorian  law,  fourfold  restitution  was  enjoined  in 
cases  oi  furtum  manifestum ; and  twofold  in  those  of 
furtum  nec  manifestum.  (2)  Injuria ; by  the  laws  of 
the  Twelve  Tables,  the  talio  (the  law  of  “an  eye  for 
an  eye,”  &c.)  must  be  enforced  in  cases  of  actual  per- 
sonal injury,  unless  the  disputes  were  settled  by  com- 
promise. For  smaller  offences  of  this  description  a 
pecuniary  penalty  was  inflicted.  By  the  praetorian 
law  a higher  fine  was  substituted  for  the  talioj  151. 
(3)  'Damnum,  or  injury  done  to  the  property  of  another, 
was  atoned  for  on  certain  terms  fixed  by  the  law. 
Predatory  attempts  on  the  property  of  others  were 
viewed  in  the  same  light  in  the  early  days  of  the  Re- 
public ; but  when  such  attacks  became  common  in  the 
Civil  War,  a penalty  in  quadruplum-  was  imposed. 

§ 13.  Family  rights — Marriage. 

152.  By  the  Roman  laws,  a marriage,  to  be  com- 
pletely valid  ( matrimonium  justum),  presupposed  con- 
nubium  on  both  sides  ; that  is  to  say,  originally  equality 
of  rank,  and  afterwards,  by  the  Canuleian  law  (c.  c. 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


81 


445),  the  possession  of  full  political  privileges  ( civitas ). 
Such  a marriage  was  contracted  either  in  a stricter  01 
in  a looser  form.  The  first  of  these  consisted  eithei 
of  (1)  confarreatio,  i.  e.  a solemn  sacrifice  and  several 
ceremonies  in  presence  of  the  Pontifex  maximus  and 
Flamen  dialis,  followed  by  the  conveyance  of  the  bride 
to  the  bridegroom’s  house  with  various  observances  ; or 
(2)  coemptio,  i.  e.  an  imaginary  purchase  ( per  ces  et 
libram),  with  certain  settled  forms ; or  (3)  usus,  i.  e.  a 
full  year’s  cohabitation.  153.  By  these  forms  the  bride 
was  withdrawn  from  the  control  of  her  father  or  guar- 
dian, became  in  all  respects  a member  of  her  husband’s 
family,  and  was  entirely  subject  to  him  (in  manu  esse, 
conventio  in  manum )i  By  the  looser  form  no  such 
dependence  was  incurred,  the  wife  still  remaining  sub- 
ject to  her  father  or  guardian,  or  at  her  own  disposal. 
The  more  strict  marriage,  especially  that  by  confarre- 
atio, gradually  became  rarer  than  the  other  form, 
Matrimonium  injustum,  or  mixed  marriages  between 
Romans  and  foreigners,  were  invalid  in  law,,  and  neither 
secured  the  rights  of  citizenship  to  the  children,  nor 
invested  the  father  with  the  patria  potestas  (157). 

§ 14.  Same  subject  continued. 

154.  Bigamy  and  marriages  within  the  nearest  de- 
grees of  affinity,  for  instance,  between  a brother  and 
sister,  or  even  between  adopted  or  step  brothers  and 
sisters,  were  strictly  prohibited. . The  marriage  was 
usually  j preceded  by  a betrothal  (sponsalia,  sponsa, 
pacta),  which  might  be  cancelled.)  When  the  marriage, 
took  place,!  it  was  customary  for  the  parents  or  nearest 
relations  of  the  bride  to  give  a dowry;  (dos),  concerning 
which,  in  later  times,  legal  provisions  were  made. 
The  marriage!  might  be  annulled)  either  when  one  of 
the  parties  underwent  a capitis  aeminutio  maxima  or 
media'  (for  instance  by  imprisonment  or  exile),  or  by 
divorce  ( repudium , properly  speaking  on  the  part  of  the 
husband  ; repudium  renuntiare,  nuntium  remittere,  di- 
vortium,  discidium).  155.  The  marriages  by  confarrea- 

4* 


82 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


tion  (152)  were  dissolved  by  an  act  of  diffarreatiorh 
In  the  older  time  divorces  were  very  rarer  U?ut  latterly 
they  became  much  more  frequent ; and  the  marriages 
contracted  under  the  less  strict  form  were  dissolved 
without  any  formality)  The  sanctity  of  marriage  was 
enforced  by  the  Censors,  who  sometimes  imposed 
heavier  taxes  on  unmarried  persons.  In  the  reign  of 
Augustus  a law,  called  the  lex  Poppcea,  was  passed, 
with  the  view  of  restraining  celibacy,;  which  had 
become  almost  universal. 

§ 15.  The  Parental  Authority.  Adoption.  Arroga- 
tion. 

156.  With  a valid  marriagf?  was  connected  the 
patria  potestas,  which  even  ir?  cases  of  adoption  and 
arrogation,  was  very  extended.  Arrogation  was  used 
in  the  case  of  independent  persons,  and  took  place  at 
'the  Comitia  curiataHn  presence  of  the  Pontifex  maxi- 
mus.  By  Adoption;  dependent  persons  and  minors 
were  transferred  to  another  guardian.  It  was  con- 
cluded in  presence  of  a magistrate  by  a threefold  act 
of  mancipation  (146).  We  read  also  of  adoption  by 
will,  or  declaring  a person  heir  of  the  testator  on 
condition  of  his  taking  the  same  name.  The  father 
had  the  right  of  putting  to  death,  scourging,  selling, 
and  disinheriting  his  adult  children,  and,  under  certain 
restrictions,  of  exposing  new-born  infants^  157.  All 
property  acquired  by  a son  in  patria  potestate  belonged 
to  the  father,  who  nevertheless^was  no(  obliged  to  dis- 
charge debts  contracted  by  his  children.  Sometimes, 
however,  the  father  granted  to  his  son  a private  allow- 
ance ( peculium ),  which  he  might  resume  at  pleasure, 
or  inherit  in  case  of  the  son’s  death.  The  parental 
authority  (was  forfeited  by  the  father’s  or  son’s  losing 
the  freedom  of  the  city;  by  arrogation  on  the  side  of 
the  father,  or  adoption  on  that  of  the  sons  by  the  mar- 
riage of  the  daughter  ; or  lastly  by  emancipation,  which 
was  effected  by  a threefold  act  of  mancipation  (146) 
and  manumission. 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


83 


§ 18.  Agnatio,  Cognatio,  Affinitas. 

158.  In  a legal  point  of  view,  a distinction  was 
drawn  between  agnatio,  cognatio,  and  affinitas.  (1) 

; Agnatio  was  that  affinity  which  conferred  a com- 
munity of  civil  rights  on  persons  connected  by  blood 
in  the  male  line,  e.  g.  sons  of  the  same  father,  or 
cousins  whose  fathers  were  brothers)  The  Agnates 
enjoyed  the  right  of,  inheritance,  and  the  tutela,  or 
guardianship  of  minors,  (2)  Cognatio  was  the  general 
term  for  the  natural  relationship ; hence  for  such  rela- 
tionship as  it  existed  between  peregrini,  capite  demi- 
nuti,  and  blood  relations  in  the  female  line,  e.  g.  between 
the  mother’s  brother  and  sister’s  daughter.  (3)  Affini- 
tas was  connexion  by  marriage.  These  two  last  had 
very  little  legal  importance  in  ancient  times,  but  were 
afterwards  by  the  praetorian  law  pronounced  valid 
grounds  for  a claim  of  inheritance  or  guardianship. 

§ 17.  Gentilitas. 

159.  By  the  term  gentes  in  the  most  ancient  times 
were  understood  those  great  alliances  or  clanships  be- 
tween Roman  Patricians,  which  were  held  together  by 
nomen,  sacra,  inheritance,  or  other  bonds  of  union) 
To  such  a gens  the  clientes  were  attached  as  subordi- 
nate members.  The  Patricians  alone  claimed  the  term 
gens,,  alt  hough  similar  alliances  probably  existed  among 
therlebeians ; and  when  at  a later  period  marriages 
were  contracted  between  patrician  and  plebeian  fami- 
lies, doubtful  questions  would  arise  respecting  the  right 
of  gentilitas. 

§ 18.  Guardianship. 

160.  The  guardianship  of  minors,5  or  the  adminis 
tration  of  their  property,  was  either  settled  by  will,  or 

5 Impuberes  and  minores  must  not  be  confounded.  The  age  of  puler- 
tas  . . . when  the  tutela  ceased,  ended,  according  to  Justinian’s  Code,  at 
fourteen  for  a male,  twelve  for  a female.  They  were  minores  till  twenty- 

five. 


64 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


fell  to  the  nearest  agnah  (158),  or,  in  default  cf  any 
such,  was  fixed  by  the  magistrate.  The  guardian  who 
discharged  his  office  unfaithfully  was  condemned  by 
the  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables  to  forfeit  double  the 
amount  of  the  property  wasted,  and  was  also  subject 
to  a certain  description  of  infamy  ( turpe  judicium 
tutelce).  The  guardianship  also  of  women,  whethet 
widows  or  unmarried  (both  of  whom  were  styled 
viduce),  was  either  conferred  by  will,  or  by  their  own 
choice,  if  the  will  permitted  such  an  arrangement,  or 
by  the  nearest  agnates  (158)  or  the  decree  of  a magis- 
trate. 161.  Women,  however,  of  full  age  might  them- 
selves manage  their  property,  and  only  under  peculiar 
circumstances  required  the  auctoritas  of  a guardian ; 
in  cases,  for  instance,  where  legal  proceedings  accord- 
ing to  the  old  strict  forms  were  requisite.  For  lunatics, 
persons  of  weak  understanding,  and  spendthrifts,  cura- 
tores  were  sometimes  appointed  on  the  application  of 
the  family.  These  curatores  were  charged  with  the 
management  of  the  ward’s  property,  and  were  respon- 
sible for  the  due  discharge  of  their  office.  Minors  abo 
received  a curator  nominated  by  the  Praetor. 

§ 19.  The  ancient  Right  of  Inheritance. 

162.  The  old  strict  law  of  inheritance  required  that 
the  testator  should  possess,  through  the  commercium, 
the  full  right  of  making  a will  ( testamenti  f actio),  from 
which  all  were  excluded  who  were  in  the  potestas  or 
manus  of  another,  as  well  as  all  peregrini,  minors,  and 
women  who  were  under  tutela  or  curatio  (161).  No 
peregrinus  could  be  named  as.  an  heir.  The  rights  of 
inheritance  possessed  by  females  were  circumscribed 
by  the  lex  Voconia,  in  which  among  other  provisions  it 
was  enacted  thatCno  person  whose  property  amounted 
to  109,000  sesterces  should  make  a woman  his  sole  heir, 
or  bequeath  her  more  than  the  half  in  the  form  of  a 
legacy.  163.  In  the  time  of  Augustus,  ccelibes  and 
orbi  were  excluded  from  the  right  of  inheritance.  At 
a very  early  period  we  find  three  descriptions  of  will  * 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


85 


(1)\  the  testament  in  the  Comitia  calata,  which  were 
held  twice  a year  for  this  purpose';  (2)  in  procinctu, 
verbally  in  the  presence  of  witnesses,  a mode  employed 
in  time  of  war;  (3)  per  ces  et  lilrram,  by  a fictitious 
sale  to  the  heir.  This  last  description  was  retained  the 
longest.  The  inheritance  was  either  devised  to  one 
persofi  only  ( hceres  ex  asse ),  or  there  were  several 
cohceredes  (e.  g.  hceres  ex  do  dr  ante 6),  sometimes  the 
will  designated  a hceres  secundus.  164.  A testament 
was  invalid  ( testamentum  rumpitur),  if  the  testator  had 
lost  the  commercium,  or  made  a more  recent  will,  if  the 
heirs  were  unablp  or  unwilling  to  take  possession  of 
the  inheritance,  or  if  an  agnate  (158)  was  born  after 
the  execution  of  the  will.  If  a man  died  intestate,  his 
natural  heirs  were  his  wife  and  children  (who  had  been 
in  manu  and  potestate),  and  in  default  of  such,  his 
nearest  agnates,  or  failing  those  his  gentiles.  The  in- 
heritance of  a freed  man,  who  left  no  natural  heirs 
( sui)i  fell  to  his  patron. 

§20.  The  Prcetorian  Laic  of  Inneritance. 

165.  As  many  of  the  provisions  of  the. civil  law  of 
inheritance  were  exceedingly  unjust,  e.,g4the  exclusion 
of  cognall/ and  emancipated  children)  these  severe 
clauses  were  in  various  ways  softened  and  modified  by 
the  praetorian  law.  Hence  the  praetorian  rule  of  suc- 
cession, by  which  the  bonorum  possessio  was  estab- 
lished, which,  however,  did  not  constitute  ownership 
without  usucapio  (146).  The  praetorian  testament/  was 
in  writing  but  was  not  valid  against  an  older  disposi- 
tion according  to  the  civil  law.  Sometimes  the  Praetor 
granted  bonorum  possessio  contra  tabulas,  by  which  he 
conferred  the  right  of  inheritance  on  the  nearest  rela- 
tions, who  had  been  passed  over  in  the  will,  but  not 
expressly  disinherited  ; or  secundum  tabulas,  by  which 

6 The  As  (—  12  uiicii e)  representing  the  whole  property,  the  dodrans 
(=  9 uncia)  represented  (-jV  = ) f of  the  whole  estate.  The  similar 
phrases  will  b«  easily  determined  by  consulting  the  division  of  the  As 

D 155. 


86 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTICIUITIES. 


it  was  granted  to  them,  notwithstanding  the  informality 
of  a will  in  a strict  legal  point  of  view,  provided  only 
that  it  were  in  writing  and  contained  the  usual  expres- 
sions. 


Judicia  Privata. 

§21.  Lsgis  Actiones. 

166.  The  proceedings  of  the  Roman  tribunals  were 
conducted  viva  voce,  and  consisted  partly  in  the  de- 
cision of  legal  questions  by  the  magistrate  ( in  jure), 
and  partly  in  the  investigation  of  the  fact  by  judices 
(in  judicio).  The  most-ancient  forms  of  legal  process 
were  / the  legis  actiones,  i.  e.  certain  introductory 
formulae  founded  on  the'words  of  the  law,  and  various 
symbolical  ceremonies.  They  concerned  only  cives, 
and  required  the  personal  appearance  of  the  parties' 
( rei  apud  Cic.V  actor,  petitor  ; reus,  is  unde  petitur). 
The  smallest  departure  from  the  established  form 
involved  the  loss  of  the  suit.  Among  the  various 
forms  the  most  important,  and  that  which  was  longest 
retained,  was  the  legis  actio  sacramentol  in  which  a 
pecuniary^deposit  was  made  by  each  party.  The 
gainer  of  the  cause  received  his  money  back,  whilst 
that  of  the  loser  escheated  to  the  public  exchequer. 
167.  To  this  were  frequently  added,  in  pleas  in  rem , 
the  vindicice,  a symbolic  form,  by  which  each  party 
asserted  his  right  to  the  subject  of  dispute,  by  laying 
his  hand  on  it,  upon  which  the  Praetor  assigned  the 
possession  provisionally  until  the  question  was  decided. 
In  the  case  of  immoveable  property,  or  of  objects 
which  could  not  be  brought  entire  into  court,  the  two 
parties  either  adjourned  to  the  spot,  accompanied  by 
the  Praetor,  or  brought  into  court  a portion  of  the  dis- 
puted possession,  for  instance  a sheep  from  a flock,  or 
a clod  ( gleba ) from  a farm. 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  TIIS  STATE 


§ 22.  Formulce  actionum. 

188.  At  a later  period  the  old  legis  actiones  were 
gi  ad  u ally  discontinued,  and  only  the  legis  actio  sacra- 
ment'^ retained  in  particular  cases ; for  instance,  as  the 
form  in  which  proceedings  were  commenced  before  the 
tribunal  of  the  Centumviri.  The  symbolic  forms  were 
at  the  same  time  abolished,  and  in  their  place  were 
introduced  a series  of  new  forms  of  pleading?  (actiones), 
which  werA  admitted  into  the  Edict,  and  one  of  which 
was  applicable  to  each  case.  These  more  varied  forms 
were  frequently  by  a legal  fiction  connected  with  the 
older  system,  that  being  assumed  as  fact,  which  did  not 
in  reality  exist ; an  arrangement  by  which  property 
might  be  protected  in  many  cases  where  ownership 
could  not  be  established  by  the  strict  provisions  of  the 
civil  laws  ; and  persons  ( peregrini  for  instance)  might 
acquire  the  right  of  pleading,  which  without  -such  an 
arrangement  they  could  not  possess  by  the  strict  letter 
of  the  law.  169.  It  was  incumbent  on  the  plaintiff!  to 
choose  that  actio  which  was  applicable  to  his  case. 
An  error  in  form  in  this  respect  yras  fatal  to  the  cause 
( causa  cadere),  or  at  least  occasioned  its  postpone- 
ment it  was  therefore  necessary  to  have  legal  advice 
on  this  point.  For  instance,  if  the  complaint  related  to  a 
certum,  the  plaintiff  was  nonsuited  if  he  claimed  more 
than  his  due  (plus  petere).  If  the  cause  was  not  thus 
rejected,  the  plaintiff  received  a formula,:  or  written 
nomination  of  a judge)  together  with  a setting  forth  of 
the  fact,  and  the  form  of  sentence  which  was  to  follow 
the  fact,  if  proved,  which  was  left  to  the  judge  for 
further  investigation.  170.  (These  parts  are  according 
to  Gaius  (iv.  § 39,  p.  116;  ed.  Bonn.),  (1)  Demonstra- 
',io  = ‘ea  pars  formulae,  quae  praecipue  ideo  inseritur, 
ut  demonstretur  res,  de  qua  agitur.’  (2)  Intentio  = 
‘ea  pars  formulae,  qua  actor  desiderium  suum  con- 
clude.’ (3)  Adjudicatio  — ‘ea  pars  formulae,  qua  per- 
mittitur  judici  rem  alicui  ex  litigatoribus  adjudicare.’ 
(4)  Condemnatio  — ‘ea  pars  formulae,  qua  judici  con- 
iemnandi  absolvendive  potestas  permittitur.’  All  these 


68 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


parts  were  not  found  in  every  formula.)  Both  the 
pleadings  and  the  judgment  in  every  actio  which  sought 
to  recover  from  the  defendant,  stated  a sum  of  money, 
pecunia  certa  or  incerta,  even  although  the  matter  in 
dispute  might  be  something  else,  a slave  for  instance. 
171.  To  these  formulae  were  frequently  added  pra- 
scriptiones  or  exceptiones,  i.  e.  certain  conditional 
clauses  inserted  by  the  magistrates  on  the  prayer  of 
either  of  the  parties  ( postulare , dare  exceptionem) , e.  g. 
ea  res  agatur,  cujus  rei  dies  fuit,  with  reference  to  a 
payment  due  by  instalments  (the  action  being  for  the 
recovery  of  instalments  then  due,  this  exceptio  had  the 
effect  of  leaving  the  question  with  respect  to  future 
instalments  still  open)  ; or  in  form  of  an  exception,  e.  g. 
si  in  ed  re  nihil  dolo  malo  Auli  Agerii  factum  sit 
neque  fiat.  The  investigation  of  the  fact  on  which  the 
exception  was  founded,  belonged  to  the  judge. 

§23.  Subject  continued.  Proceedings  injure. 

172.  The  proceedings  commenced  with  the  in  jus 
vocatio,  a summons  which  in  ancient  times  had  a sort 
of  compulsory  force  dependent  on  the  performance  of 
certain  ceremonial  observances  defined  by  the  law 
(; mantis  injectio).  Afterwards  other  forms  of  summons 
were  introduced,  particularly  by  padimonium,  or  the 
deposit  of  security  by  the  defendant  for  his  appearance 
in  court  at  an  appointed  time  ( vadari  aliquem,  vadimo- 
nium  promittere,  sistere,  deserere 7).  173.  When  the 

magistrate  and  counsel  were  instructed  by  these  pre- 
liminary proceedings  concerning  the  character  of  the 
actio  which  the  plaintiff  desired  to  adopt,  and  in  cases 
of  necessity  the  oath  against  false  accusation  had  been 
administered  ; then,  if  the  matter  could  not  be  settled 
summarily,  a 'day  was  appointed  for  the  appearance  of 
the  parties  in  court,  and  on  that  day  the  proceedings 

7 Vadimonium  promittere,  belonged  to  the  defendant ; vadari,  was 
the  act  of  the  plaintiff  who  accepted  the  security,  vadimonium  sistere,  is 
to  appear  in  court  as  bound  to  do  by  these  recogj nuances ; vadimonium 
deserere,  not  to  appear  on  the  appointed  day. 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


89 


commenced  either  with  a confession  in  court,  or  the 
administration  of  an  oath;.  In  the  writ  a judex  was 
named,  whom.;  the  plaintiff  seems  to  have  had  the  right 
of  proposing,  but  who  might  be  objected  to  by  the 
defendant  on  the  ground  of  partiality  in  this  form, 
iniquum  ej-Sro.  Sometimes  several  judges  were  ap- 
pointed (recuperators'3) . Lastly  the  proceedings  in 
jurd  concluded  with  a litis  contestation  by  which  the 
waywvas  prepared  for  the  (actual  trial,  or)  proceedings 
fin  judicial') 

l J 

§ 24.  Proceedings  in  judicio. 

174.  The  proceedings  in  judicio,  which  consisted 
of  lengthened  pleadings,  might  be  concluded  in  one 
day  or  continued  for  several.  The  case  was  proved 
partly  by  witnesses,:  who  deposed  on  oath,  and  might 
be  cross-examined  by  the  other  side,  and  partly  by 
documentary  evidence  ( tabulae , literce,  codices  accepti 
et  expensi .8 9  By  the  old  legis  actiones  the  personal 
attendance  of  both  parties  was  requisite  ( nemo  alieno 
pontine  lege  agere  potest)  ; but  the  process  by  formulae 
allowed  them  to  be  represented  by  cognitores,  i.  e. 
certain  authorized  agents  chosen  in  proper  form  in 
presence  of  the  opposite  party,  and  by  procurators, 
whose  nomination  was  more  simple.  At  the  close  of 
the  proceedings;  the  judge  might  either  postpone  his 
decision,  or  decline  to  pronounce  any’. (non  liquet),  or 
he  might  deliver  his  sentence,  against  which,  until  the 
times  of  the  empire,  there  was  no  appeal,  the  victori- 
ous party  having! an  exceptio  rei  judicatce . 175.  Still 

there  were  means)  of  reversing  an  unjust  sentence;  for 
instance,  the  interposition  of  some  magistrate  of  equal 
or  superior  rank,  or  of  the  Tribunes;  and  sometimes 
the  form  of  process  might  be  vicious : for  example, 
when  the  matter  had  been  tried  before  an  incompetent 

8 Hence  the  formula  began  with  Judex  esto  — ; or  Recuperatorea 
a unto  — . 

9 Tabula  justce  and  codices  accepti  et  expensi  were  ledgers,  into 
which  the  items  of  an  account  were  transferred  from  the  adversaria  ot 
day-boolc,  in  which  they  were  first  posted. 


90 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


magistrate.  The  operation  of  the  sentence  was  some- 
times enforced  by  a sponsio  poenalis.  Certain  descrip- 
tions of  condemnation,  e.  g.  judicium  tutelce  and  man- 
dati,  were  attended  with  infamy  ( judicium  turpe ). 
Non-appearance  occasioned  the  loss  of  a caused  There 
were  several  modes  of  discouraging  unnecessary  or 
pettifogging  actions ; such  as  the  condemnatio  in  dup- 
lum,  or  the  judicium  calumnies,  by  which  a pecuniary 
penalty  was  incurred.  If  the  sentence  were  not  obey- 
ed, a decree  of  the  Praetor’s  followed,  e.  g.  missio  in 
bona  venditionis  causa,  by  which  the'judgment  of  the 
court  was  carried  into  full  effect. 

§ 25.  The  Interdicta  of  the  Prcetor. 

17G.  One  peculiar  form  of  action,  or  of  commenc- 
ing an  action,  was  the  interdicta  of  the  Praetor,  that  is, 
a preliminary  writ,  in  which,  on  the  petition  of  the  one 
party,  he  enjoined  or  forbade  something  to  the  other ; 
certain  facts  being  presupposed,  which  might  become 
the  subject  of  a judicial  investigation,  and  a process 
ex  interdicto. 


J u d i c i a P u b 1 i c a . 

§ 26.  Criminal  Proceedings. 

177.  The  judicia  publica  had  reference  especially 
to  such  acts  as  were  considered  to  be  productive  of 
danger  to  the  freedom  and  security  of  the  state,  or  in- 
jurious to  the  interests  of  the  citizens  in  general  They 
were  originally  conducted  by  inquisitors  (subject  to  the 
supreme  authority  of  the  Kings)  who  were  nominated 
to  that  office  ( queestores  parricidii) , and  of  judges 
[decemviri),  with  an  appeal  to  the  people.  After  the 
expulsion  of  the  Kings,  these  courts  were  presided  over 
by  the  Consuls  or  Praetors';  or  by  Qucesitores  especially 
appointed.  Capital  offenders  were  tried  judicio  populi 
on  the  requisition  of  the  Qucesitores  (Liv.  2.  41.) 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


91 


After  the  introduction  of  the  Tribuneship,  persons  who 
had  invaded  the  rights  of  the  people  were  sometimes 
summoned  by  their  Tribunes  before  the  popular  courts 
of  the  Comitia  tributa,  and  there  condemned,  as  in  the 
cases  of  Coriolanus  and  Caeso  Quinctius.  178.  This 
\ practice  was  afterwards  abandoned  in  compliance  with 
the  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables,  which  provided  that 
capital  offences  should  be  tried  only  in  the  Comitia 
centuriata  ; and  the  Comitia  tributa  merely  retained 
(the  right  of  inflicting  a fine,  as  in  the  case  of  Camillus. 
In  consequence  of  the  great  number  of  offences,  the 
so-called  qucestiones  perpetuce  were  introduced  (about 
the  year  b.  c.  144)  for  the  trial  of  certain  felonies. 
These  were  conducted/ by  the  four  Praetors  {qucesi- 
tores,  qucestioni  prceefstM  but  afterwards  also  bjjudices 
qucestionis \ especially  nominated  to  that  duty,  who 
managed  the  proceedings  injure  (172,  173),  the  inves- 
tigation of  the  fact  being  left  to  the  sam ejudices  who 
decided  private  causes.  The  immediate  judicial  au- 
thority of  the  people  now  declined  by  degrees  j whilst 
the  qucestiones  perpetuce  steadily  increased  in  impor- 
tance, and  continued  for  a time  even  under  the  Em- 
perors. 179.  The  Senate  had  no  judicial  authority, 
strictly  speaking,  over  the  persons  of  citizens,  but  in 
extraordinary  cases  such  a right  was  frequently  as- 
serted, e.  g.  against  the  Gracchi  and  Catiline’s  accom- 
plices. Under  Ae  Emperors  ..it  was  invested  with 
judicial  authority  in  cases  of  high  treason.  The  prce- 
fectus  zirZus  had' also  a criminal  jurisdiction,  subject  to 
an  appeal  to  the  Emperor  as  supreme  judge.  During 
the  Republic,  the  criminal  jurisdiction  beyond  the  walls 
of  the  city  (except  in  capital  prosecutions)  was  exer- 
, cised  by  the  municipal  authorities,  and  in  the  provinces 
by  the  governor. 


§ 27.  Form  of  Criminal  Proceedings. 

180.  None  but  Magistrates  could  appear  before  the 
popular  tribunals  as  accusatores.  Sentence  was  passed 
according  to  the  usual  comitial  form.  On  the  other 


92 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIGUITIES. 


hand,  any  citizen  might  act  as  prosecutor  in  the  Pras-  ' 
tor’s  court;  and  although  it  was  esteemed  dishonorable  i 
to  make  a trade  of  these  prosecutions,  yet  to  come 
forward  on  any  single  occasion  as  the  denouncer  of 
one  who  had  violated  the  laws  of  his  country,  was  a I 
respectable  office  ; and  in  some  cases  men  were  even  j 
encouraged  to  undertake  it  by  the  promise  of  rewards 
from  the  state.  If  more  than  one  prosecutor  offered  || 
themselves,  the  principal  prosecutor  was  determined 
by  means  of  a previous  investigation  ( divinatio ),  and  !| 
the  others  were  then  styled  subscriptores.  181.  The 
prosecutor  commenced  his  proceedings  by  a postulatio  1 
before  the  Praetor,  at  which  the  name  of  the  accused 
was  given  in  ( delatio  nominis)  according  to  a settled 
form.  After  the  oath  had  been  administered,  by  which 
the  prosecutor  swore  that  he  was  not,  to  the  best  of  his 
knowledge,  about  to  make  a false  accusation  ( calum - 
nia),  the  receptio  nominis  by  the  magistrate  took  place. 

A day  was  then  fixed  for  trying  the  question  in  judicio. 
The  judges  were  selected  from  the  decuriee  judicum, 
and  required  to  take  an  oath.  Their  number  varied 
(in  most  cases  however  exceeding  50),  as  well  as  the 
forms  observed  in  their  election,  which  generally  was 
by  lot,  the  contending  parties  having  equally  the  right 
of  challenge.  Then  followed  the  trial  itself,  which 
latterly  was  divided  in  most  cases  into  two  portions 
( prima  et  secunda  actio).  182.  In  criminal  proceed- 
ings persons  might  be  compelled  to  bear  witness,  but 
(by  the  lex  Julia)  not  against  their  nearest  relations. 
The  examination  ( qu<zstiones ) of  slaves  was  accompa- 
nied even  by  the  application  of  the  rack  ( equuleus ) ; 
but  in  capital  causes  it  was  at  all  events  irregular  to 
torture  the  slaves  of  the  accused  in  order  to  obtain 
evidence  against  their  master.  The  accused  and  his 
relations  appeared  in  vestes  sordidce.  Several  defenders 
were  often  engaged ; after  the  civil  wars,  the  number 
seems  to  have  amounted  to  twelve,  until  it  was  kept 
within  bounds  by  the  lex  Julia.  Lastly  came  the 
judgment  ( sententia , either  condemnatio,  absolutio,  or 
ampliatio,  postponement  of  the  decision).  The  votes, 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


93 


ol  acquittal  or  condemnation,  were  inscribed  (by  the 
leges  tabellaricE ) on  tablets  which  were  thrown  into  a 
zista.  The  security  by  vades  served  to  insure  the  car- 
rying of  the  sentence  into  effect.  Means  of  protection 
against  unjust  sentences  were  found  in  the  appeal  to 
the  people,  and  the  intercessio  of  magistrates  equal  or 
superior  to  the  accusing  magistrate,  or  of  the  Tribunes. 

§ 28.  Crimes 

183.  The  offences  which  generally  formed  the  sub- 
ject of  criminal  proceedings  were  the  crimen  majestatis 
( minuere  majestatem),  or  violation  of  the  dignity  of  the 
Roman  people,  concerning  which  the  laws  best  known 
were  the  lex  Appuleia  (b.  c.  102)  Cornelia,  Julia ; per- 
duellionis  (high  treason),  and  repetundarum  (extortion 
in  the  provinces).  The  last  of  these  was  in  ancient 
times  the  subject  of  a private  action,  which  was 
decided  by  the  recuperatores ; but  afterwards  it  was 
made  a criminal  offence,  for  the  repressing  of  which 
many  legal  enactments  were  passed.  After  the  gov- 
ernor had  laid  down  his  office,  an  indictment  was  pre- 
ferred against  him  at  Rome,  and  those  who  prosecuted 
such  a magistrate  to  conviction,  were  rewarded  with 
the  freedom  of  the  city.  Other  crimes  of  this  descrip- 
tion were  peculatus,  embezzlement,  or  illegal  disposal 
of  public  money : ambitus,  canvassing  for  office  by 
means  of  bribery  and  other  unlawful  expedients  (an 
offence  which  was  very  common,  and  the  laws  against 
it  very  numerous):  vis;  concerning  the  vis  publica 
the  most  remarkable  enactment  was  the  lex  Plautia 
(u.  c.  78) ; parricidium,  murder,  especially  of  relations 
(against  this  crime  was  the  lex  Cornelia  de  sicariis, 
veneficis,  et  parricidis ) : falsum ; under  this  head  may 
be  noticed  the  lex  Cornelia,  directed  against  the  forgery 
of  wills,  and  coining : sacrilegium,  or  robbery  of  tem- 
ples ; and  plagium,  kidnapping  and  sale  of  human 
beings. 


94 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


§ 29.  Punishments. 

184.  The  punishments  in  the  days  of  the  Republic 
were  fines  and  death  ; for  which,  at  a later  period,  ban- 
ishment was  substituted.  Corporal  punishment  was 
abolished.  Death  was  generally  inflicted  by  decapita- 
tion (securi  percuti).  The  more  ancient  modes  were, 
casting  the  criminal  down  from  the  Tarpeian  rock,  and 
hanging  ( infelici  arbori  suspendi).  For  parricidium 
the  punishment  was  insui  in  culeum  et  injlumen  dejici. 
Catiline’s  accomplices  were  strangled  in  prison.  The 
punishment  of  exile  was  rendered  effective  by  the  in- 
terdictio  aquae  et  ignis.  At  first  the  banished  persons 
retired  into  the  Italian  confederate  cities ; but  when  at 
a later  period  these  were  admitted  to  municipal  privi- 
leges, the  criminals  wei'e  compelled  to  seek  an  asylum 
elsewhere  ; for  example,  in  Gaul  or  Greece.  185.  Ban- 
ishment and  heavy  fine  were  the  usual  punishments  for 
the  more  grievous  offences  against  the  state.  In  the 
time  of  the  empire  the  punishments  were  more  severe, 
and  were  often  inflicted  arbitrarily.  Criminals  were 
then  fi-equently  condemned  to  mortal  combat  with  wild 
beasts,  or  as  gladiators.  In  the  room  of  banishment 
( interdictio  aquae  et  ignis ) were  introduced  deportation 
( deportatio ) into  some  remote  or  desert  region  (accom- 
panied with  loss  of  property  and  citizenship),  or  the 
(milder)  relegatio  (which  required  the  person  to  go  into 
banishment,  but  left  him  his  rights  of  property , unless 
a part  was  specially  excepted,  and  citizenship.  The 
time  of  deportatio  was  always  indefinite  ; that  of  rele- 
gatio not  always.  Diet.  Antiqq.).  Criminals  were  also 
condemned  to  hard  labour  in  the  public  mines  and  salt 
works,  with  enslavement  and  corporal  punishment. 

§ 30.  Intercourse  with  foreign  nations — Ambassadors 

186.  The  relations  of  Rome  with  other  nations 
were  generally  defined  by  treaties.  Such  an  under- 
standing we  find  to  have  existed  in  the  earliest  days  of 
the  Republic  between  Rome  and  Carthage,  with  regard 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


95 


to  commercial  intercourse.  By  similar  treaties  she  also 
protected  her  citizens  in  their  dealings  with  foreigners. 
The  negotiation  of  these  treaties  was  conducted  by 
Ambassadors,  whose  persons  were  sacred,  provided 
they  abstained  from  all  personal  participation  in  war,  a 
regulation  which  was  violated  by  the  Roman  Ambas- 
sadors themselves,  in  the  war  against  the  Gauls  (Livy 
5.  36.).  Whoever  misconducted  himself  towards  a 
foreign  Ambassador,  was  delivered  up  to  the  enemy  by 
the  Fetiales.  Insults  offered  to  the  Ambassadors  of 
Rome,  were  retaliated  with  great  severity. 

\ 

§31.  Declaration  of  W ar,  and  War. 

187.  When  any  injury  was  received  from  a foreign 
nation,  Fetiales  or  Ambassadors  were  sent  ad  res  repe- 
tendas ; and  if  this  were  ineffectual,  war  was  declared 
according  to  certain  settled  forms.  By  this  act  the 
foreign  people  were  declared  enemies  ( hostes , originally 
perduelles),  and  the  Romans  empowered  to  take  pos- 
session of  their  property,  and  sell  the  booty  for  the 
purpose  of  depositing  the  proceeds  in  the  Treasury,  or 
distributing  them  among  the  soldiers : the  gods  were 
at  the  same  time  invited  to  abandon  the  country ; 
the  land  might  become  ager  publicus ; the  inhabitants 
be  made  slaves,  and  sold  sub  corona,  for  the  benefit  of 
the  Exchequer : in  a word,  the  nation,  when  subdued, 
might  be  utterly  annihilated,  and  deprived  of  its  politi- 
cal existence.  188.  But  these  stern  rights  were  not 
always  enforced.  The  conquered  people  were  often 
permitted  to  retain  their  personal  freedom,  and  a 
part  of  their  property,  or  even  their  independence. 
Insurrection  and  revolt  were  severely  punished.  The 
conclusion  of  peace  was  also  celebrated  by  the  Fetiales 
with  regular  ceremonies.  Instead  of  peace,  an  armis- 
tice (inducice)  was  frequently  concluded.  Sometimes 
the  war  ended  with  a sponsio,  concluded  by  the  com- 
manders, but  not  always  ratified  by  the  state,  which  in 
such  a case  required  the  promoter  to  be  delivered  up 
to  the  enemy  by  the  Fetiales. 


9fi 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


B . Finance. 

§ 1.  Public  Expenditure. 

189.  The  Roman  republic  was  exempt  from  many 
expenses  which  fall  heavily  on  most  modern  states. 
There  was  neither  a costly  royal  household,  nor  a 
crowd  of  public  officers  with  large  salaries ; and  many 
institutions  which,  in  our  day,  are  partly  at  least  sup- 
ported at  the  public  charge,  education,  for  example,  and 
the  discipline  of  youth,  were  left,  for  the  most  part,  to 
private  agency.  The  heaviest  remaining  charges  were 
those  connected  with  the  public  worship  of  the  gods, 
such  as  the  erection  and  maintenance  of  temples,  sacri- 
fices, feasts,  games,1  and  the  support  of  the  Vestal  vir- 
gins ; the  conservation  of  public  edifices  and  gardens, 
expenses  attendant  on  the  reception  and  sending  out 
of  ambassadors,  with  the  outfit  of  the  Consuls  and 
provincial  governors,  salaries  of  inferior  officers,  such 
as  the  Scribai ; maintenance  of  the  public  slaves ; the 
purchase  of  materiel  for  the  army  in  general,  and  of 
horses  for  the  cavalry,  provisions  and  pay,  which  last 
seems  to  have  been  decreed  to  the  army  by  the  Senate 
during  a war  with  the  Volsci,  b.  c.  406.;  190.  Lastly, 
the  Exchequer  was  charged  with  the  purchase  of  grain, 
which,  in  seasons  of  scarcity,  was  sold  to  the  people  at 
a reduced  price ; and  latterly,  with  the  distribution  of 
corn  and  support  of  the  poor ; a regulation  which,  in 
conjunction  with  the  large  amount  of  private  donations, 
attracted  a crowd  of  broken  down  or  idle  persons  to 
Rome,2  and  thus  imposed  a heavy  burden  on  the  state 

§ 2.  Resources  of  the  State  in  the  most  ancient  times. 

191.  The  proceeds  of  the  public  estates,  of  which 
the  Campus  Martius  formed  a portion,  served  for  the 

1 From  the  time  of  the  first  Punic  war,  the  expenses  of  these  games 
were  defrayed  in  part  by  the  .Ediles  themselves. 

2 A lex  frvmcnlaria  of  C.  Gracchus  established  a regular  corn-tax. 
Clodius  introduced  a gratuitous  distribution  of  grain  ; an  arrangement 
which,  in  spite  of  various  attempts  to  regulate  the  proportions,  was 
always  liable  to  great  abuse.  It  continued,  however,  to  exist  in  the  days 
of  the  Empire. 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


97 


maintenance  of  the  Kings,  and  the  expenses  of  religious 
worship.  The  sums  arising  from  fines  and  confisca- 
tions seem  also  to  have  been  applied  to  the  latter  of 
these  objects.  As  early  as  the  time  of  the  Kings,  we 
find  mention  of  duties  ( vortoria, ) and  imposts  (tributa). 
The  latter  seem  to  have  consisted  originally  of  a sort 
of  poll-tax,  concerning  which  very  little  is  known.  A 
property-Tax  was  imposed  in  the  reign  of  Servius  Tul- 
lius (Liv.  1.  42),  corresponding  to  the  pecuniary  quali- 
fication registered  in  the  Censor’s  -books.3  After  the 
expulsion  of  the  Kings  the  poorer  citizens  seem,  for  a 
time,  to  have  been  exempted  from  these  payments. 

§ 3.  Taxes  paid  by  Roman  Citizens. 

192.  The  standing  direct  contribution  from  Roman 
citizens  was  a property-tax)  ( tributum ) levied  as  cii’- 
cumstances  rendered  it  necessary ; and  sometimes 
arbitrarily  increased  by  the  Censors,  in  individual 
cases,  by  way  of  punishment.  It  was  collected  by  the 
Qurestors.  Another  tax  was  the  vicesima  manumis- 
sionum,  or  a payment  of  five  per  cent  on  the  value  of 
emancipated  slaves,  which  was  exacted  in  conformity 
to  the  provisions  of  a law  proposed  by  the  Senate,  and 
adopted  by  the  army,  in  defiance  of  all  regular  forms, 
in  the  year  b.  c.  357. 

§ 4.  Extraordinary  Revenue  derived  from  Wars  and 
Conquests. 

193.  The  victories  of  Rome,  at  first  in  Italy,  and 
subsequently  abroad,  gradually  brought  into  the  Ex- 
chequer considerable  revenues,  some  of  which  were 
extraordinary,  others  regular.  Under  the  first  head 
may  be  reckoned  the  spoils  of  conquered  countries, 
which  were  sold  by  the  Praetor  on  the  public  account, 
so  far  as  such  an  arrangement  could  be  carried  out 
consistently  with  dispositions  already  made  by  the 

3 In  ancient  times,  some  of  the  more  wealthy  classes  were  charged 
with  the  payment  of  military  contributions,  especially  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  cavalry. 


5 


98  MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

general  for  rewarding  his  soldiers,  or  fulfilling  his  vows 
to  the  gods.  We  may  also  mention  here  the  purchase- 
money  of  the  inhabitants,  when  they  were  sold  as 
slaves  (e.  g.  in  the  case  of  the  Aurunci,  in  u.  c.  502), 
as  well  as  the  contributions  and  extraordinary  supplies 
on  the  part  of  the  vanquished,  of  provisions,  clothing, 
arms,  horses,  ships,  and  naval  stores. 

§5.  Standing  Revenue  from  Conquered  Countries. 

194.  The  standing  contributions  from  conquered 
countries  were  partly  direct  taxes  (tributa,  stipendia), 
varying  in  different  provinces,  the  form  being  either 
that  of  a poll  or  property-tax,  or  a land-tax  levied 
from  the  produce  of  the  soil  ( decumce ) ; or  indirect,  in 
the  shape  of  duty  (portorium) . The  last  was  also  paid 
in  ancient  times  by  Italy,  which,  however,  was  exempt 
from  every  description  of  land-tax.  The  rents  of  the 
public  lands  ( ager  publicus)  are  also  mentioned  as  an 
important  item.  Whenever  the  Romans  conquered  a 
country,  they  took  possession  of  a portion,  generally  a 
third  of  the  land,  which  became  public  property,  and 
as  such  was  either  sold,  or  bestowed  in  the  form  of  a 
grant,  or  leased  out  at  a certain  rent  to  farmers.  195. 
Of  this  ager  publicus  considerable  tracts  might  be 
found  in  different  parts  of  Italy,  and  partially  also  in 
the  provinces.  It  consisted  partly  of  pasture  land 
(saltus)  which  was  leased  out  to  pecuarii,  whose  rents 
( scriptures ) were  farmed  by  the  publicani.  In  Italy  we 
find,  in  ancient  times,  the  Patricians  exclusively  in 
occupation  ( possessio ) of  the  cultivated  land,  for  which 
they  paid,  in  the  form  of  rent,  a third  of  the  produce 
of  the  field  crops,  and  a fifth  of  their  fruit.4  Other 

* This  occupation  ( possessio ) did  not  confer  complete  proprietorship, 
the  state  still  retaining  the  right  of  disposal.  It  might,  however,  be  con- 
veyed or  bequeathed  subject  to  this  condition.  By  degrees,  the  ager  pub- 
licus fell  into  the  hands  of  a few  rich  individuals,  who  were  perpetually 
increasing  their  possessions  by  the  purchase  of  smaller  estates.  These 
lands  were  cultivated  by  slaves ; an  arrangement  which  greatly  reduced 
the  number  of  free  agriculturists.  Against  these  abuses,  and  the  unequal 
distribution  of  property,  agrarian  laws  were  enacted  ; e.  g.  the  lex  Licinia 
to  b.  c.  37G,  which  was  confirmed  by  the  laws  of  the  Gracchi. 


ADMINISTRATION7  OF  -THE  STATE. 


99 

productive  sources  of  revenue  were  the  lakes,  which 
were  farmed  out  to  fishermen,  the  mines  ( metalla ),  and 
salt  works  (salines).  The  trade  in  salt  became  in  Italy 
a state  monopoly  at  a very  early  period. 

§6.  Farming  of  the  Revenue.  Publicani. 

196.  The  income  of  the  state  was  not  collected 
immediately  by  government,  with  the  exception  of  the 
property-tax,  which  was  levied  by  the  Quaestors,  but 
was  farmed  out  by  the  Censors  to  the  highest  bidder 
for  a lease  of  five  years,  viz.,  from  one  censura  to 
another.  The  bidding  (vectigalia  locare,  redimere) 
took  place  publicly  at  Rome  in  the  forum,  sub  hastd,  the 
conditions  (tabulce,  leges  censorice)  having  been  pre- 
viously read  to  the  assembled  people.  As  these  con- 
tracts were  not  unfrequently  too  heavy  for  individuals 
to  undertake,  companies  (societates)  of  publicani  were 
formed,  which  were  represented  by  a Manceps,  who 
concluded  the  bargain,  and  found  the  requisite  security. 

197.  With  these  publicani  were  connected  a great 
number  of  inferior  agents  and  slaves  (esse  in  operis 
societatis : operas  publicanis  dare : familia  publicano- 
rurn).  These  contractors  collected  the  revenues  of 
each  province  under  the  protection  of  the  Governor, 
and  generally  acquired  enormous  fortunes.  The  most 
important  among  them  were  the  Knights,  who,  as  being 
the  richest  private  individuals,  were  able  to  undertake 
these  contracts,  and  acquired  great  influence  through 
the  means  which  their  property  afforded  of  rendering 
others  dependent  on  them.  All  officers  connected  with 
the  Roman  Treasury,  as  well  as  Governors  of  provinces 
and  Senators,  were  disqualified  from  undertaking  any 
public  contracts. 

§ 7.  Abolition  of  the  Taxes  and  Contributions  of 
Roman  Citizens. 

198.  The  large  sums  which  flowed  into  the  Ex- 
chequer in  consequence  of  the  important  conquests 


100 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


achieved  by  Rome,  enabled  the  government  gradually 
to  dispense  with  the  property-tax.  After  the  conquest 
of  Macedonia  (b.  c.  1G8),  it  was  suspended  until  the 
triumvirate  of  Antony,  Octavian,  and  Lepidus,  in  the 
year  b.  c.  43.  By  the  lex  Thoria  (n.  c.  107)  the  ager 
publicus  was  relieved  from  the  payment  of  taxes.  In 
the  year  b.  c.  60,  a law  was  passed,  de  abolendis  Italice 
vectigalibus ; and  as  the  agrarian  laws  gradually  con- 
verted the  government  estates  into  private  property, 
scarcely  any  revenue  continued  to  be  raised  in  Italy, 
the  existence  of  the  Roman  state  being  in  a great 
measure  dependent  on  the  tribute  exacted  from  her 
conquered  enemies. 

§ 8.  Administration  of  the  Finances. 

199.  Of  the  financial  administration  in  the  time  of 
the  Kings,  scarcely  any  thing  is  known.  During  the 
Republic  all  affairs  of  finance  were  transacted  by  the 
Senate,  which  settled  the  mode  of  levying  taxes,  voted 
sums  for  the  public  service,  ordered  the  supply  of  the 
army  commissariat,  &c.  The  officei's  of  finance  were 
the  Censores,  who  regulated  the  taxation,  and  superin- 
tended the  farming  out  of  the  public  revenues ; the 
Qucestores,  who  managed  the  receipts  and  disburse- 
ments, kept  an  account  of  the  property-tax,  and  col- 
lected it ; and  the  Triumviri  Monetales,  who  superin- 
tended the  coinage.  The  public  Treasury  or  Exchequer 
was  termed  cerarium,  and  stood  in  the  temple  of  Saturn 
in  the  forum. 

§ 9.  The  Finances  under  the  Emperors. 

200.  Augustus  allowed  the  cerarium  to  remain  as 
a public  Treasury,  nominally  under  the  control  of  the 
Sfenate  ; but  diminished  its  importance  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  a war -cerarium,  and  a fiscus,  or  imperial 
privy-purse.  The  Emperors  increased  the  pay  of  the 
army,  and  granted  bounties  ( do'nativa ) to  the  soldiers ; 
commanded  distributions  of  grain  and  other  provisions 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


101 


among  the  people,  and  treated  them  with  public  shows  : 
but  they  also  gradually  introduced  a number  of  new 
taxes,  direct  and  indirect.  201.  From  the  time  of 
Diocletian,  the  financial  administration  was  entirely 
changed  ; and  in  subsequent  reigns  the  public  expen- 
diture was  considerably  increased  by  the  formation  of 
an  expensive  imperial  household,  and  the  introduction 
of  a number  of  stipendiary  officers,  by  large  standing 
armies,  the  building  of  a new  capital,  and  the  tributes 
extorted  from  the  Roman  government  by  the  gradual 
encroachments  of  barbarous  nations. 


C.  Administration  of  affairs  beyond  the 
walls  of  the  city. 

§ 2.  Administration  in  Italy. 

202.  Rome  enlarged  her  limits  by  conquest.  The 
inhabitants  of  vanquished  states  were,  as  we  have  seen, 
in  ancient  times,  partly  transferred  to  the  city,  and  partly 
allowed  to  remain  in  their  own  country.  In  the  latter 
case,  they  were  generally  admitted  to  the  privileges  of 
Roman  citizenship,  but  sine  suffragio,  without  positive 
rights,  or  any  share  in  the  administration  of  the  state. 
For  the  management  of  their  political  affairs,  a Prefect 
was  sent  out  every  year  from  Rome,  but  their  local 
business  was  conducted  by  themselves.  203.  Long 
before  the  Social  war,  most  of  these  cities  had  acquired 
the  full  rights  of  citizenship,  and  thus  become  actual 
municipalities.  The  rest  of  the  Italian  tribes  Latini 
and  Itali,  socii  nomenque  Latinum)  became  gradually 
subject  to  the  Roman  empire  on  different  terms.  They 
retained  their  own  privileges  and  form  of  government, 
but  were  required  to  furnish  such  a contingent  of 
troops  as  might  be  settled  by  the  Senate,  with  which 
they  also  communicated  through  their  Legati  respect- 
ing their  public  affairs,  the  Senate  being  charged  with 
the  direction  of  all  matters  connected  with  the  provin- 
cial administration.  Many  of  them  gradually  adopted 


102 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


the  Roman  civil  code,  and  sank  more  and  more  into  a 
condition  of  dependence  on  Rome. 

§ 2.  The  subject  continued. — Administration  subse- 
quent to  the  lex  Julia. 

204.  After  the  helium  sociale,  the  several  Italian 
states  were  amalgamated  into  one  empire,  the  allied 
states  and  Latin  colonies  gradually  becoming  munici- 
palities, an  arrangement  which  conferred  on  their 
inhabitants  all  the  rights  of  Roman  citizens.  In  these 
municipalities,  as  in  the  more  ancient  ones,  the  local 
business,  and  questions  affecting  the  rights  of  individu- 
als, were  settled  by  an  administration  modelled  on  that 
of  Rome  ; that  is  to  say,  by  an  Assembly  of  the  people, 
and  a council  of  Decurions  and  various  magistrates, 
such  as  the  Decemviri,  or  Quatuorviri  ;5  whilst  gen- 
eral affairs  of  state,  and  important  criminal  proceedings 
were  conducted  at  Rome.  205.  We  read  of  Prefec- 
tures even  after  the  Julian  law,  but  they  differed  from 
the  municipia  in  no  essential  particular,  as  regarded 
political  rights.  By  the  lex  Julia,  Gallia  Cisalpina 
was  not  comprehended  in  Italy  ; but  after  a little  time, 
the  right  of  citizenship  was  also  extended  to  Gallia 
Cispadana.  The  Transpadani  received  first  the  privi- 
lege of  Latinity,  and  afterwards,  under  Caesar,  of  Citi- 
zenship. Under  the  Emperors,  Italy  gradually  assumed 
the  form  of  a Province,  administered  by  Governors. 

§ 3.  Administration  of  the  Provinces. 

206.  As  the  conquests  of  Rome  extended  themselves 
by  degrees  over  the  whole  of  Italy,  new  forms  of  ad- 
ministration were  necessarily  introduced.  The  inhab- 
itants of  foreign  countries  were  either  admitted  as  allies 
under  conditions  more  or  less  favorable,  or  were  re- 
duced to  a state  of  complete  vassalage.  Whenever 

6 Offices  of  this  description  were  sometimes  held  by  Roman  Senators 
and  their  sons  ; e.  g.  Milo  was  Dictator  in  Lanuvium,  and  Cicero’s  son, 
JDdilis  in  Arplnum. 


ADMINISTRATION  OP  THE  STATE. 


103 


the  Romans  desired  to  retain  a conquered  country  as 
the  property  of  the  state,  they  converted  it  at  once  into 
a Province  {in  provincice  formam  redigere).  The  most 
ancient  of  these  were  Sicily  and  Sardinia.  The  first 
settlement  of  the  Province  was  effected  by  the  general 
by  whom  it  had  been  conquered,  in  conjunction  with 
a committee  of  Senators  (generally  ten),  and  with  the 
approbation  of  the  Senate.  207.  At  first,  only  Praetors 
actually  in  office  were  chosen  as  Governors ; but  lat- 
terly they  were  retained  in  the  provinces  with  the  title 
of  Propraetor  {pro  prcetore),  after  they  had  completed 
their  year  at  Rome.  This  was  also  the  case  at  a later 
period  with  regard  to  the  Consuls  {pro  consule).  The 
provinces  were  Prcetorice  and  Consulares,  both  of 
which  were  assigned,  either  by  lot  or  by  agreement. 
By  a law  of  the  younger  Gracchus,  it  was  provided 
that  the  consular  provinces  should  be  settled  by  the 
Senate,  previously  to  the  Comitia  at  which  the  Consuls 
were  chosen ; and  by  an  enactment  in  Cicero’s  time, 
Consuls  and  Praetors  were  prohibited  from  going  into 
the  provinces  as  Governors  until  they  had  been  five 
years  out  of  office.  In  extraordinary  cases,  the  people 
themselves  assigned  a province  to  a Governor  (as  Gaul 
to  Caesar). 

§ 4.  The  Governor  and  his  subordinate  officers. 

208,  Before  his  departure  from  Rome,  the  provin- 
cial Governor  was  invested  with  the  imperium  (by  a 
lex  curiata),  and  furnished  with  money  sufficient  for 
his  travelling  expenses  and  other  wants.  He  was  the 
supreme  executive  military  and  judicial  authority  in  the 
province,  and  was  assisted  in  the  administration  of  his 
office  by  Legates,  whose  number  he  himself  settled, 
according  to  the  size  of  his  province  or  the  circum- 
stances of  any  war  in  which  he  might  be  engaged  ; 
and  by  a Quaestor,  chosen  by  the  people,  who  was 
charged  with  the  financial  department.  By  ancient 
custom,  these  officials  lived  with  the  Governor  on 
erms  of  familiarity  and  affection,  like  sons  with  their 


1 04 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


father.  Besides  the  Praetorian  cohort,  properly  so 
called,  which  constituted  the  body-guard  of  the  Gov- 
ernor, he  had  a second  coliors  Pretoria,  consisting 
partly  of  his  personal  friends,  and  partly  of  Scribce, 
PrcccOnes,  Harusplces,  Interpr&tes,  and  other  officers. 

§ 5.  The  subject  continued. 

209.  By  the  Cornelian  law,  the  Governor  was  re- 
quired to  quit  the  province  (decedere  provincial)  within 
thirty  days  after  the  expiration  of  his  term  of  office, 
and  to  render  an  account  of  his  administration  accord- 
ing to  his  own  and  the  Quaestor’s  books.  Deputations 
were  frequently  sent  to  Rome  from  the  provinces,  for 
the  purpose  of  pronouncing  an  eulogium  on  their  Gov- 
ernor, a practice  which  sometimes  degenerated  into  a 
mere  compulsory  observance.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
provinces  enjoyed  the  right  of  appealing  to  the  Senate 
against  any  act  of  oppression  ; and  on  these  occasions 
they  were  supported  by  the  most  distinguished  Romans, 
who  acted  as  their  patrons  and  hosts.  210.  Laws 
were  repeatedly  passed  prohibiting  extortion  in  the 
provinces  ( repetundarum ).  A lex  Servilia  promised 
the  freedom  of  the  Roman  state  to  any  provincial  who 
should  prosecute  a Gqvernor  to  conviction.  But,  not- 
withstanding all  this,  it  was  exceedingly  difficult  for  a 
deputation  from  the  provinces  to  establish  any  accusa- 
tion against  the  Roman  aristocracy  ; and  in  order  to 
attain  their  object  they  were  often  obliged  to  have  re- 
course to  bribery. 

§ 6.  Constitution  and  Condition  of  the  Provinces. 

211.  Although  the_cities  retained  a sort  of  munici- 
pal constitution,  it  was  regulated  in  a great  measure 
by  Roman  laws,  and  subject  to  the  interference  and 
control  of  the  Roman  Governor!  Their  religious  in- 
stitutions remained  unchanged.  The  defence  of  the 
country  was  provided  for  by  means  of  the  standing 
army  of  the  province  A part  of  the  land,  especially 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


105 


such  estates  as  had  been  royal- demesnes  or  state  pro- 
perty, became  ager^  publicus,  Pnd  was  either  farmed 
out  by  the  Censors,  or  granted  on  lease  to  its  original 
possessors.  The  tributes  varied  considerably  in  these 
provinces?)  'the  public  revenues  were  farmed  out  to 
Publicam’.  As  the  tone  of  morality  became  lower  at 
Rome,  the  provinces  were  often  grievously  oppressed 
by  these  Publicans,  Governors,  and  Negotiatores.  212 
The  Governors  always  expected  free  quarters  for  them- 
selves, their  friends,  and  followers  in  their  progresses 
through  the  province,  and  were  often  bribed  to  connive 
Pat  the  shameless  extortions  practised  by  the  crowds  of 
publicans  and  Roman  usurers  established  there.  The 
cities  were  drained  by  extraordinary  taxes,  forced 
contingents  of  grain  for  the  Governor’s  use,  or  an 
equivalent  in  money  arbitrarily  exacted,  and  by  the 
quartering  of  troops  ; and  those  who  had  friends  in  the 
iEdileship,  did  not  scruple  to  require  a supply  of  wild 
beasts  for  the  public  games  at  Rome,  or  to  rob  the 
provinces  of  their  works  of  art,  and  even  to  extort  con- 
tributions of  money  under  the  name  of  presents. 

§ 7.  Administration  of  the  Laws. 

213. _At  certain  seasons  the  Governor  made  pro- 
gresses through  his  province,  and  appointed  assemblies 
(conventus)  to  be  held  at  a particular  time  and  place 
for  the  administration  of  justice.  On  these  occasions, 
the  Governor  himself  presided  as  judge,  assisted  by 
jurymen,  who  were  either  Romans  or  provincials, 
according  tq  the  nature  of  the  cause  which  they  were 
to  decide.  We  find  the  term  conventus  also  applied  to 
the  guilds  of  Roman  citizens}  who  resided  in  the 
Provinces  for  the  sake  of  commerce,  as  negotiatores, 
or  mercatores,  or  as  farmers  of  the  public  revenue 
(publicani) . These  guilds  were  styled  conventus  civi- 
um  Romanorum..  214.  In  addition  to  the  principles  of 
administration  laid  down  at  the  establishment  of  the 
province,  the  Governor,  on  assuming  office,  generally 
issued  an  edictum  provinciate J the  provisions  of  which 

5- 


106 


MANUAL  OP  ROMAN  ANTIdUITIES. 


affected,  to  a considerable  extent,  the  privileges  of 
individuals,  and  were  mostly  based  on  the  Edict  issued 
by  the  Praetor  at  Rome.  The  Governor  had  the  power 
of  life  and  death,  within  the  limits  of  his  province ; but 
capital  offences  committed  by  Roman  citizens,  could 
only  be  judged  at  Rome.  The  province,  however,  had 
itself  jurisdiction  in  disputes  between  members  of  one 
and  the  same  community. 

§8.  Tile  more  favoured  Provincial  Cities. 

215.  Among  the  provincial  cities  were  several 
which  enjoyed  especial  privileges.  Some  of  them 
were,  from  the  beginning,  independent  confederate 
towns  ( civitates  liberce  et  fcederatce ) ; whilst  others,  at 
a later  period,  were  declared  free,  under  the  name  of 
friends  and  allies : some  also  enjoyed  an  immunity 
from  tribute  and  the  quartering  of  troops. 

§ 9.  The  Provinces  under  the  Emperors. 

216.  Augustus  divided  the  Provinces  into  Imperial 
Provinces,  and  Senatorial  or  Popular  Provinces,  i.  e. 
those  which  required  no  military  force.  This  division 
continued  until  the  third  century.  The  Senatorial 
Provinces  were  administered(by  Governors  (Proconsuls 
and  Propraetors) ; to  the  Imperial,  Legates  were  sent 
out,  chosen  for  an  indefinite  period,  and  latterly  distin- 
guished in  most  cases  by  the  title  of  Pr  ossicles.  After 
the  time  of  Hadrian,  a general  code  of  municipal  laws 
was  formed  out  of  the  rescripts  of  the  Emperors. 
Still  we  find,  even  in  the  days  of  the  Empire,  a con- 
siderable diversity  in  the  privileges  enjoyed  by  different 
cities.'  217.  There  were  free  cities,  cities  with  theyws 
Italicum,  colonies,  and  municipalities.  In  the  time  of 
Caracalla  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  Roman  Empire 
received  the  privilege  of  citizenship,  and  peregrinitas 
was  in  consequence  entirely  abolished.  From  the  days 
of  Diocletian  and  Constantine,  the  Empire  was  divided 
•nto  four  prefectures  governed  by  Preefecti  prcetorii, 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


107 


viz.  Prcefectura  Orientis,  Illyrici,  Italics,  and  Gallics; 
at  the  same  time  the  military  authority  was  separated 
from  the  civil. 


D . Military  affairs. 

§ 1.  Military  affairs  under  the  Kings. 

218.  From  the  earliest  period  of  Roman  history  we 
find  the  military  establishment  simple  indeed,  but  regu- 
larly organized  with  reference  to  the  ancient  divisions 
of  the  people.  In  the  remotest  times  the  army  con- 
sisted of  3000  infantry  soldiers,  probably  1000  from 
each  tribe.  We  find  also;  threei  centuries  equitum,  one 
for  each  tribe,  and  distinguished  by  the  same  names  as 
the  tribes.  These  centuries  of  cavalry  soldiers  were 
probably  the  same  as  the  celeres  mentioned  by  Livy  as 
the  royal  body-guard.  The  troop  consisted  of  three 
hundred  men,  or,  according  to  some  authorities,  of  a 
greater  number.  219.  Tarquinius  Priscus  seems  to 
have  doubled  it.  The  subsequent  division  of  the  peo- 
ple by  Servius  Tullius  had  also  a military  character. 
The  centuries  of  equites  were  eighteen;  composed  of 
the  most  substantial  citizens.  The  infantry  consisted 
of  five  classes,  each  of  which  had  its  distinct  equip- 
ment, and  was  divided  into  seniores,  for  the  defence  of 
the  city,  and  juniores  for  actual  military  service.  Dis- 
tinct centuries  were  also  formed  by  the  fabri,  cor- 
nicines,  and  tubicine, s,  attached  to  the  army. 

§ 2.  Military  affairs  at  a later  period — Conscription — 
Term  of  service. 

220.  For  a long  time  the  levy  of  soldiers  was  con- 
ducted in  accordance  with  the  division  into  classes, 
and  afterwards  by  tribus,  the  men  being  chosen  from 
the  juni ores,  an  expression  which  latterly  signified  per- 
sons between  the  ages  of  seventeen  and  forty-seven. 
The  term  of  service  was  twenty  campaigns  of  one 
year  for  the  infantry,  and  ten  campaigns  for  the  cav- 


[08 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


airy.  Until  the  war  with  Hannibal  the  legions  were 
formed  afresh  every  year ; but  after  that  time  a stand- 
ing army  was  gradually  established.  Both  the  legion- 
ary and  cavalry  service  were  esteemed  honorable,  and 
ten  years  of  either  were  a qualification  for  the  magis- 
tracy. 221.  The  poorest  citizens  ( proletarii  and  cnpite 
censi ),  as  well  as  the  freedmen,  performed  no  military 
duty,  except  on  extraordinary  occasions,  when  they 
generally  served  by  sea.  Marius,  in  the  Jugurthine 
war,  was  the  first  who  chose  soldiers  without  reference 
to  property ; but  this  practice  afterwards  became  uni- 
versal ; and  after  the  Bellum  Sociale  even  libertini 
were  admitted  into  the  legions.  Towards  the  end  of 
the  Republic,  citizens,  and  at  a later  period  the  allies 
also,  were  exempted  from  compulsory  military  service  ; 
and  under  the  Emperors  the  army  consisted  in  a great 
measure  of  foreigners. 

§ 3.  The  subject  continued. 

222.  In  the  early  days  of  the  Republic  it  was  cus- 
tomary to  raise  at  most  four  legions,  two  for  each  Con- 
sul. Afterwards  the  number  went  on  increasing ; and 
was  further  augmented  by  a crowd  of  allies,  whose 
strength  in  infantry  was  often  equal,  and  in  cavalry 
superior  to  that  of  the  Roman  army.  At  the  annual 
levies  or  conscriptions,  all  who  had  reached  the  mili- 
tary age  were  compelled,  on  the  requisition  of  the 
Consul,  to  appear  on  the  Campus  Martius,  or  at  the 
Capitolium,  for  the  purpose  of  enrolling  their  names 
( scribere  exercitum,  nomina  dare).  The  selection  was 
made  by  the  military  tribunes  ( delectum  habere,  legere 
milites).  223.  Those  who  tried  to  avoid  the  service 
( militiam  detrectare)  were  liable  to  fine,  and  sometimes 
to  still  more  severe  penalties,  such  as  the  loss  of  free- 
dom. The  holders  of  high  official  appointments,  and 
persons  labouring  under  bodily  infirmity,  were  ex- 
empted from  military  service,  ( vacatio  militia*). 

6 The  Senators,  in  ordinary  cases,  were  exempt  from  military  service, 
except  as  Commanders  in-c1'/ .-f,  Legati,  Tribunes,  or  as  volunteers. 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


109 


Whenever  circumstances  required  a sudden  conscrip- 
tion ( subitarii  milites,  exercitus  tumultuarius) , the 
right  of  exemption  was  restricted.  After  the  enrol- 
ment, an  oath  was  administered  ( sacramentum , Sacra- 
mento adigere ),  without  which  there  existed  no  obliga- 
tion, strictly  speaking,  to  serve  in  war.  After  the 
soldier  had  served  his  appointed  time  ( stipendia  legiti 
ana  merere  or  facere),  he  received  a discharge  ( missio ) , 
but  these  discharged  men  ( emeriti ) were  sometimes 
again  called  out  ( evocati ). 

§ 4.  Pay  of  the  Soldiers. 

224.  The  Roman  legionaries  first  received  pay 
during  a war  which  broke  out  in  the  year  b.  c.  406.* 
The  pay  of  a legionary  soldier  was  two  oboli  or  -§■  dena- 
rius per  day,  that  is  to  say  3^  as,  according  to  the  an- 
cient reckoning,  which  was  always  observed  in  the^ 
payment  of  the  soldiery.  A centurion  received  double 
pay,  and  a cavalry  soldier  treble.  A portion,  however, 
was  kept  back  for  arms,  clothing,  and  provisions,  until 
the  time  of  C.  Gracchus,  when  a law  was  passed 
securing  to  the  soldier  his  accoutrements  without  any 
payment  on  his  part.  In  the  civil  wars  it  was  usual  to 
grant  them  greater  privileges ; and  under  the  Emperors 
they  received  higher  pay,  and  extraordinary  largesses 
to  a considerable  amount.  225.  Anciently  the  richest 
citizens  were  appointed  to  the  cavalry  service.  By  an 
ordinance  of  Servius  Tullius  they  were  allowed  20,000 
asses  for  the  purchase  of  a horse,  and  2000  annually 
for  its  keep,  in  the  form  of  an  order  on  the  vidua,  i.  e. 
on  widows  of  property,  and  rich  unmarried  women. 
Even  at  a later  period  they  received  the  as  equestre 
for  the  purchase,  and  the  as  hordearium  for  the  keep 
of  an  eqnus  publicus.  By  degrees  regular  pay  was 
substituted  for  the  as  hordearium.  The  cquites  who 
had  no  equus  publicus  (53,  54),  rode  their  own  horses. 
This  occurred  for  the  first  time  at  the  siege  of  Veii  in 
the  year  b.  c.  496.  Afterwards,  when  the  equestrian 

7 Niebuhr  doubts  the  correctness  of  this  statement,  ii.  p.  441. 


110 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


order  was  formed,  the  cavalry  soldiers  were  levied  in 
the  same  manner  as  those  of  the  infantry. 

§ 5.  Divisions  and  Arms  of  the  Troops. 

226.  The  infantry  were  divided  into  legions,  each 
legio  into  ten  cqhortes,  a cohors  into  three  manipuli, 
and  a manipulus  into  two  centuries.  To  each  legion 
belonged  a cavalry  corps,  divided  into  ten  turmce,  each 
turma  containing  three  decuria;.  The  strength  of  each 
legion  varied  from  4000  to  6000  infantry,  and  300  to 
400  cavalry,  or  even  more.  The  soldiers  were  divided 
into  the  heavy-armed  (milites  gravis  armatures) , who 
formed  the  chief  strength  of  the  army.  According  to 
Livy,  they  were  originally  formed  on  the  model  of  the 
Grecian  phalanx,  but  afterwards  broken  up  into  three 
battalions  ; the  hastati,  or  front  line,  originally  armed 
with  hastce,  afterwards  with  pila  ; the  principes,  and 
the  triarii,  who  were  anciently  termed  pilani ; the 
hastati  and  principes  being  then  denominated  antepi- 
lani.  227.  The  chief  defensive  arms  ( arma ) were  the 
scutum,  an  oblong  shield  ; galea,  the  helmet ; lorlca, 
the  coat  of  mail ; thorax,  the  breast-plate  ; ocrece,  the 
greaves.  Their  offensive  weapons  (tela)  were  the 
gladius,  or  sword  ; pila,  javelins ; hastce,  long  spears. 
The  light-armed  soldiers  ( milites  levis  armatures,  velltes) 
fought  in  scattered  bodies,  and  carried  & parma  ox  light 
round  shield.  To  them  belonged  ,the  funditores  ov 
slingers,  sagittarii,  archers,  and  otheT  descriptions  of 
light  troops.  The  arms  of  the  cavalry!  differed  in  no 
essential  particular  from  those  of  the  infantry,  They 
also  had  a lighter  and  heavier  armament.  The  usual 
military  costume  was  a short  cloak, , sagum  ( paluda - 
mentum  "was  the  cloak  of  the  commander-in-chief,  of 
purple  cloth  with  decorations),  over  a tunica. 

§ 6.  Officers. 

228.  The  command  (imperium)  of  the  army  was 
ntrusted  to  the  supreme  magistrates ; to  the  Kings, 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


Ill 


afterwards  to  the  Consuls,  and  sometimes  to  the  Prae- 
tors and  Dictators.  Next  to  these  were  several  Legati, 
whose  number  was  fixed  by  the  Senate.  Each  legion 
had  three,  and  subsequently  six  Tribuni  militum,  two 
of  whom  took  the  command,  and  were  relieved  every 
two  months.  After  the  year  b.  c.  363,  they  were 
chosen  partly  by  the  generals,  and  partly  by  the  people 
in  the  Comitur  tributa.  Under  them  were  centurions 
( centuriones , ordinum  duetores)  chosen  from  the  best 
soldiers.  229.  Each  maniple  had  two  centurions,  a 
■prior  and  a.  posterior.  The  centurion  of  the  first  cen- 
tury in  the  first  maniple  of  triarii  was  called  centurio 
primi  pili,  or  primus  pilus,  and  took  precedence  of 
the  others.  The  centurion  of  lowest  rank  was  the 
decimus  hastatus  ; from  this  post  the  most  deserving 
men  were  gradually  promoted  to  the  higher  ranks. 
Under  the  centurions  were  the  succenturiones,  decani, 
and  signiferi.  In  the  provinces  the  Governor  acted 
as  Commander-in-chief.  In  extraordinary  emergencies, 
the  army  was  commanded  by  a Dictator  and  his  Ma- 
gister  Equitwn. 


§ 7.  The  Allies. 

230.  The  Senate  annually  settled  the  contingent 
to  be  furnished  by  each  of  the  allies,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  nation,  or  the  conditions  of  their  alliance, 
together  with  the  place  of  rendezvous  for  all  the  troops. 
For  these  forces  Prefects,  corresponding  to  the  Military 
Tribunes  of  the  legions,  were  chosen  by  the  Consul. 
The  allied  troops  partly  formed  a corps  de  reserve 
(extraor dinar ii),  and  were  partly  stationed  in  the 
wings  of  the  army,  the  infantry  being  divided  into 
cohorts,  and  the  cavalry  into  turmce.  231.  Their  pay 
and  clothing  were  provided  by  their  own  states,  but 
the  expense  of  their  keep  was  defrayed  by  Rome.  In 
the  distribution  of  rewards,  or  the  division  of  spoil, 
these  allies,  especially  the  Latins,  often  received  as 
large  a share  as  the  Roman  soldiers.  After  the  passing 
of  the  Julian  law  (b.  c.  90)  the  Italian  allies,  who  had 


112 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


been  admitted  to  the  freedom  of  the  city,  served  in  the 
legions,  but  their  cohorts  always  fought  side  by  side. 
The  auxiliary  troops  of  foreign  nations  were  termed 
auxilia. 


§ 8.  The  Arm])  on  the  march. 

232.  The  order  of  march  varied,  but  the  most  com- 
mon seems  to  have  been  the  agmen  quadratum,  a 
square  with  the  baggage  in  the  middle.  In  addition  to 
his  arms  and  equipments  (including  stakes  for  stock- 
ades), each  soldier  carried,  generally  speaking,  provi- 
sions for  fourteen  days  ( milites  impediti ; sarcince). 
For  the  transport  of  the  tents,  forage,  and  the  rest  of 
the  heavy  baggage  ( commeatus  impedimenta)  they  em- 
ployed beasts  of  burden  (jumertta) . The  standards8 
( signa  in  the  heavy-armed  legions,  vexilla  in  the  cav- 
alry and  light  infantry  troops)  were  brought  out  from 
the  cerarium  When  the  army  commenced  its  march. 

233.  Each  maniple  had  its  standard  : that  of  the  legion 
was  a hasta)  with  the  figure  of  an  animal  on  its  point ; 
from  the  time  of  Marius  this  figure  was  generally  a 
silver  eagle  with  outstretched  wings.  Great  regularity 
of  step  was  generally  observed  on  the  marcl>  ( gradu 
militari  incedere>  signa  sequi).  Scouts  [speculator es) 
were  sent  out.  The  camp-followers,  in  the  latter  days 
of  the  Republic,  when  luxury  had  begun  to  find  its  way 
even  into  the  army,  were  often  very  numerous,  con- 
sisting of  scribcB,  fabri,  agasones,  calones,  lixce,  &c. 

§ 9.  Encampments . 

234.  On  a march  the  Romans  were  accustomed 
every  night  to  construct  and  fortify  an  encampment 
( castra  facere,  ponere ),  the  site  of  which  had  been 
previously  surveyed  and  marked  out  ( castra  metari). 

8 The  standards  gave  the  signals  for  the  movements  of  the  army. 
Hence  signa  con  f err  e (to  engage),  inf  err  e (to  advance  against  the  ene- 
my),  referre  (to  retreat)  movere  (to  march)  convellere  (to  break  up  the 
samp  ; to  decamp),  convcrtere  (to  face  about),  &c. 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


113 


The  camps  intended  for  larger  occupation  ( castra  sta- 
tiva,  cestiva,  hiberna),  were  of  course  fortified  more 
carefully : many  of  the  cities,  especially  on  the  Rhine 
and  Danube,  owed  their  origin  to  the  great  stationary 
pamps  which  were  scattered  through  the  provinces. 
The  encampment  was  generally  a parallelogram,  sur- 
L-rounded  with  a trench  ( fossa),  and  mound  (agger), 
with  stockades  (valli,  collectively  vallum  (the  rampart). 
It  had  four  gates,  prcetoria,  opposite  the  enemy  ; decu- 
mana,  in  the  reamjand  the  two  side-gates  principalis 
dextra  and  sinistra,  at  each  extremity  of  the  principal 
passage  through  the  campy  This  broad  lane  divided 
it  into  two  parts,  the  pars  superior,  being  nearest  the 
porta  prcetoria,  and  containing  the  quarters  of  the 
Commander-in-chief  (prcetorium) , as  well  as  the  tents 
of  the  superior  officers  and  picked  soldiers.  The  rest 
of  the  troops  were  quartered  in  the  other  division9 
(pars  inferior).  235.  In  winter  the  tents  (tentoria) 
were  covered  with  skins  (sub  pellibus  durare , Liv.  5. 
3).  Each  tent  was  occupied,  generally  speaking,  by 
ten  soldiers  5 with  their  decanus  or  subaltern  officer 
(contubernium,  contubernales) . The  rows  of  tents 
were  separated  by  vice,  and  between  them  and  the 
rampart  there  Was-  an  open  space  ; sentinels  were  post- 
ed on  the  rampart  and  at  the  gates  (stationes,  custodies, 
vigilice,  excubice),  and  were  inspected  by  the  officers 
who  made  the  rounds.  The  signals  were  given  by 
means  of  wind  instruments,,  tuba,  cornu,  buccina,  in  the 
infantry,  and  lituus  in  the  cavalry.  In  the  camp  all 
sorts  of  military  exercises  were  practised.  When  the 
signal  was  given  for  breaking  up  the  camp,  the  bag- 
gage was  collected  (vasa  colligere)  and  laid  on  beasts 
of  burden,  and  the  army  commenced  its  march. 


§ 10.  Battles , 

236.  The  order  of  battle  generally  consisted  of 
three  lines,  hastati,  principes,  and  triarii,  (226),  posted 


This  arrangement  was  afterwards  altered. 


114 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


at  a certain  distance  from  each  other,  and  divided 
into  maniples  and  afterwards  into  cohorts.  The  inter- 
vals between  these  were  covered  by  the  next  line,  so 
that  they  stood  in  the  form  of  a quincunx.  The  open 
spaces  seem  to  have  been  occupied  by  the  light 
troops.  The  legions  were  in  the  centre  ( media  acies) ; 
the  cavalry,  allies,  and  auxiliary  troops  formed  the 
wings  (cornua).  Circumstances,  however,  sometimes 
rendered  a different  order  of  battle  expedient ; such, 
for  instance,  as  the  cuneus,  or  wedge,  for  attack  ; the 
orbis,  for  a sudden  assault  or  movement  to  surround 
the  enemy;  and  the  testudo,  a compact  figure,  chiefly 
employed  in  sieges ; the  whole  body  being  covered,  as 
with  a roof,  by  the  shields  of  the  men.  237.  The 
General  was  attended  by  a corps  of  picked  men  (cohors 
prcetoria).  Before  the  battle,  he  consulted  the  auspi- 
cia,  and  generally  addressed  some  words  of  .encourage- 
ment to  the  soldiers,  after  which  he  gave  the  signal  for 
attack.  The  battle  generally  began  with  a battle-cry, 
and  was  ‘ frequently  sustained  at  first,  by  the  light- 
armed troops,  and  with  missile  weapons,  but,  after  a 
time,  the  heavy-armed  also  took  part  in  the  engage- 
ment. If  it  was  necessary  to  retire,  the  retreat  was 
sounded  ( 'receptui  canere). 

§ 11.  Attach  ancl  Defence  of  Fortified  Places. 

238.  The  art  of  attacking  fortified  places,  from  an 
insignificant  beginning,  was  gradually  brought  to  great 
perfection  by  the  Romans.  They  were  carried  either 
by  storm  ( oppugnare ) or  by  blockade  ( obsidere ).  The 
army  invested  the  city  (coronh  cingere,  circumdUre 
urbem,  urbem  obsidione  claudere),  and,  in  the  first  in- 
stance, advanced  in  the  form  of  a testudo  (237),  and 
assailed . the  gates  and  rampart  (succedere  portis). 
Sometimes  the  city\was  surrounded  by  strongly  fortifi- 
ed lines  of  circumvallation,  so  as  at  once  to  protect  the 
besiegers  against  sallies,  and  prevent  reinforcements 
from  being  sent  into  the  place.  Within  these  lines 
was  a moveable  rampart  (agger)  of  earth,  wood,  and 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


115 


stones,  which  was  advanced  nearer  and  nearer  to  the 
city,  and  raised  to  a greater  height  than  the  walls,  that 
the  assault  might  be  made  from  its  summit.  239.  On 
this  mound  were  erected  towers  of  several  stories 
( contabulatcB  turres),  from  which  stones  and  other 
missiles,  as  well  as  combustible  substances  ( falaricce , 
malleoli)  were  discharged  on  the  besieged  by  means 
of  engines  (tormenta,  balistce,  catapultce) . Other  tow- 
ers were  moveable,  and  were  brought  forward  on  roll- 
ers or  wheels  (turres  ambulatories) . These  towers 
had  generally,  on  the  lowest  story,  a battering  ram 
( aries ),  which  was  swung  backwards  and  forwards 
against  the  wall  of  the  besieged  city ; and  in  the  mid- 
dle a bridge,  which  was  let  down  on  the  wall,  whilst 
the  soldiers  stood  above  armed  with  javelins  and  other 
missiles.  240.  The  other  engines  employed  in  sieges 
were  the  vinea,  a sort  of  shed,  composed  of  stakes  and 
wattles,  covered  with  hides,  and  pushed  forwards  on 
wheels,  under  which  was  generally  hung  the  aries ; and 
the  tolleno,  a basket,  in  which  the  soldiers  were  drawn 
up  into  the  place.  Wherever  the  nature  of  the  ground 
permitted,  mines  ( cuniculi ) w7ere  sunk,  by  means  of 
which  the  besiegers  either  sapped  the  foundatio'ns  of 
the  walls,  or  forced  their  way  into  the  city.  The 
besieged,  on  their  part,  often  made  sallies,  or  threw 
down  stones  and  combustibles,  for  the  purpose  of  kill- 
ing the  besiegers,  or  disabling  their  engines.  The 
mines  were  met  by  countermines. 

§ 12.  Military  Reivards  and  Punishments. 

241.  Besides  their  share  of  the  booty  captured  from 
the  enemy,  the  Roman  soldiers  received  certain  re- 
wards peculiarly  military ; such  as  the  corona  civica, 
a crown  of  oak-leaves,  presented  to  him  who  had  saved 
the  life  of  a citizen  ; vallaris  or  castrensis,  bestowed 
on  the  soldier  who  first  entered  the  enemy’s  camp ; 
muralis,  for  him  who  first  scaled  the  walls ; obsidion- 
alis  or  graminea,  for  him  who  had  relieved  a besieged 
city,  or  an  army  surrounded  by  the  enemy.  Such  a 


116 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


crown  was  presented  to  P.  Decius  by  the  soldiers,  b.  c. 
343,  for  his  services  in  rescuing  a Roman  army,  which 
had  been  surrounded,  in  addition  to  a crown  of  gold, 
one  hundred  oxen  and  a white  steed  with  gilded  horns 
given  to  him  by  the  Consul.  242.  The  other  rewards 
were  weapons  of  honor,  hasta  pura,  vexillum,  phalerce, 
aurece  torques,  &c.  These  gifts  were  distributed  by 
the  commander-in-chief,  in  presence  of  the  whole  army. 
We  sometimes  hear  also  of  an  increase  of  allowance, 
or  of  pay,  being  granted  by  way  of  reward.  Sulla 
introduced  a new  mode  of  rewarding  the  soldiery,  by 
granting  allotments  of  land  to  his  veterans.  The  mili- 
tary punishments  were,  stoppage  or  diminution  of  pay 
or  rations,  degradation,  cudgelling  to  death,  and  decap- 
itation.  In  cases  of  mutiny,  it  was  sometimes  the 
practice  to  decimate  the  offenders  by  lot  (Liv.  2.  59). 

§ 13.  Thanksgivings — Triumphs —Memorials  of 
Victory. 

243.  The  highest  rewards  that  could  be  conferred 
on  a general  were,  that  he  should  be  saluted  as  Imp  era- 
tor  by  his  victorious  army,  that  thanksgivings  should 
be  decreed  by  the  Senate,  ( supplicationes , gratula- 
tiones ) and  celebrated  at  Rome,  and  that  he  should  be 
honoured  with  a triumph ; a distinction  conferred  by 
the  Senate,  and  recognized  in  its  more  simple  form  at 
a very  early  period.  The  conditions  of  a justus  tri- 
umphus  (according  to  a lex  triumphalis ) were,  that  the 
individual  on  whom  it  was  conferred,  should,  as  Com- 
mander-in-chief (suis  auspiciis)  in  a war  regularly 
declared  according  to  law  against  a foreign  enemy 
(justo  et  hostili  hello),  have  extended  the  boundaries 
of  the  empire,  and  destroyed  more  than  5000  enemies. 
The  general  was  required  to  prove  that  he  had  fulfilled 
these  conditions.  244.  This  being  done,  the  proces- 
sion moved  from  the  Campus  Martius  along  the  via 
triumphalis,  through  the  porta  triumphalis,  to  the 
Capitolium,  in  the  following  order : a band  of  musi- 
cians, beasts  for  sacrifice,  spoils  taken  in  the  war 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


117 


models  of  the  captured  cities,  the  prisoners,  lictors  with 
their  fasces  wreathed  with  laurel,  the  general  in  a toga 
picta,  and  tunica  palmata,  with  a chaplet  of  laurel  on 
his  head,  in  a richly  ornamented  chariot  drawn  by 
four  white  horses.  Last  of  all  came  the  victorious 
army.  On  the  Capitol  the  general  offered  up  solemn 
prayer  and  sacrifices  to  Jupiter.  This  was  succeeded 
by  banquets  and  other  festivities.  In  later  times,  the 
triumphs  were  celebrated  with  excessive  magnificence 
( triumpliare  ; agere,  deportare  triumphum),  e.  g.  by 
Scipio  Africanus,  fEmilius  Paullus,  Sulla,  Pompey,  and 
Caesar.  245.  We  find  instances  of  generals,  who, 
being  unable  to  have  their  triumph  in  Rome,  celebrated 
it  on  the  Alban  Mount..  Under  the  Empire,  the  tri- 
umph was  almost  exclusively  reserved  for  the  general, 
and  was  often  abused.  There  was  an  inferior  sort  of 
triumph  called  an  ovatio  (from  ovis ),  in  which  the 
emperor  marched  through  the  city  on  foot  or  on  horse- 
back, with  a chaplet  of  myrtle  on  his  head,  and  sacri- 
ficed a sheep.  Victories  were  commemorated  by  the 
erection  of  tropcea,  which,  at  first,  were  trunks  of 
trees,  and,  afterwards,  statues  of  marble  or  brass,  hung 
round  with  weapons  taken  from  the  enemy.  They 
had  also  triumphal  arches  and  columns.  Sometimes 
the  conquered  foes  were  compelled,  by  way  of  mockery, 
to  pass  under  a yoke  (sub  jugum  mittere,  Liv.  3,  28). 


§ 14.  Military  Affairs  under  the  Emperors. 

246.  From  the  time  of  Augustus,  there  existed  a 
standing  army  composed  of  citizens,  provincials,  and 
allies.  Under  the  Empire,  the  legions  were  recruited 
almost  entirely  from  the  provinces.  The  pay  was 
raised,  and  the  Praetorian  cohorts  received  twice  as 
much  as  the  others.  After  a time,  the  legions  consisted 
almost  entirely  of  foreigners,  who  had  entered  the 
Roman  service  either  as  volunteers  or  compulsory 
recruits ; and  thus  the  fate  of  Rome  became,  at  last, 
dependent  on  the  will  of  barbarian  mercenaries. 


118 


MANUAL  OP  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


§ 15.  The  Navy. 

247.  The  first  traces  of  a fleet  are  found  in  the 
year  b.  c.  310;  but  it  was  not  until  the  Punic  wars 
that  Rome  seemed,  strictly  speaking,  to  have  become  a 
naval  power.  In  the  year  b.  c.  260,  the-  Consul  C. 
Duilius  overcame  the  Carthaginian  fleet.  The  naval 
force  of  the  Romans  remained,  nevertheless,  in  a very 
incomplete  state  until  the  latter  days  of  the  Republic, 
when  it  gradually  acquired  importance.  Standing 
fleets  were  maintained  by  the  Emperors.  The  fleet 
consisted  partly  of  large  ships-of-war  ( naves  longce, 
triremes,  quinquer ernes),  partly  of  a lighter  description 
of  vessels  ( actuaries , Liburnce,  the  latter  a sort  of 
brigantine,  very  sharp  in  the  bows,  with  heavy  beaks ; 
adopted  by  the  Romans  after  the  battle  of  Actium), 
and  transports  ( onerariae ).  The  ships  of  war  had 

beaks  (rostra),  with  which  they  endeavoured  to  sink 
the  enemy.  Attempts  were  also  made  to  set  his  ships 
on  fire,  or  to  board  them  by  means  of  grappling  irons 
(ferrece  manus,  harpagones,  corvi).  248.  The  naval 
service  was  less  respectable  than  that  of  the  army,  the 
ships  being  often  manned  by  citizens  of  the  lowest 
class,  and  even  by  freed-men  and  slaves.  The  sailors 
were  called  nautce,  remiges,  socii  navales ; and  the 
marines,  who  were  latterly  a distinct  corps  raised 
especially  for  that  service,  wei'e  termed  classiarii  and 
epibatce.  The  allies  were  sometimes  obliged  to  furnish 
ships  and  sailors.  The  admiral  (dux,  prcefectus  classi) 
was  generally  a Consul ; his  ship  was  called  navis  pree- 
toria;  the  other  ships  were  usually  commanded  by  a 
Tribune,  or  a Centurion,  assisted  by  gubernatores  and 
hortatores,  who  directed  the  rowers.  In  winter,  the 
ships  were  hauled  up  on  land  ( subducere  naves ; dedu- 
cere  is  usually  to  haul  them  back  again  into  the  sea). 
The  harbours  were  often  strongly  fortified,  and  pro- 
vided with  docks  ( navalia ).  Mention  is  sometimes 
made  of  a triumphus  navalis  and  a corona  navalis. 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


119 


E . Religion . 

§ 1.  Characteristics  of  the  Roman  Religion. 

249.  The  chief  characteristic  of  the  Roman  religion 
was  profound  veneration  for  certain  divine  beings, 
whose  nature  was  dark  and  mysterious,  but  who  exer- 
cised a wide  spreading  and  decided  influence  over  the 
fates,  not  only  of  individuals,  but  of  families,  and  even 
of  the  state  itself.  We  find  here  neither  a system  of 
dogmatical  speculations  concerning  the  essence  of  the 
godhead,  nor  a picture  of  their  lives  and  actions,  freely 
sketched  by  fancy ; but  the  grave  and  practical  char- 
acter of  the  people  may  be  detected  in  the  purity  and 
severity  with  which  the  representations  of  their  su- 
preme beings  are  drawn,  and  in  the  distinct  expression 
of  their  own  feelings  of  dependence  upon  them.  This 
feeling  discloses  itself  in  a variety  of  sacred  usages, 
which  were  observed  with  the  most  rigid  exactness,  in 
accordance  with  their  published  ritual,  and  the  law  and 
customs  of  their  forefathers,  by  which  certain  words 
and  forms  were  enjoined.  It  was  also  shown  in  their 
prayers,  vows,  thanksgivings,  sacrifices,  feasts,  and 
games  in  honour  of  the  gods ; and  lastly,  in  the  inves- 
tigation of  numberless  signs,  which  they  believed  to  be 
revelations  of  the  will  of  a godhead  which  pervaded 
all  nature  ; and  in  the  expiations  appointed  for  averting 
the  evils  threatened  by  unfavourable  omens. 

§ 2.  Relation  of  Religion  to  the  State. 

250.  The  religion  of  Rome  was  inseparably  inter- 
woven with  her  civil  polity,  both  developing  themselves 
simultaneously.  Their  form  of  worship  was  partly 
public  for  the  whole  nation,  partly  private,  for  particu- 
lar persons  or  families ; and  was  maintained  by  a code 
of  ecclesiastical  laws.  Like  the  other  Roman  institu- 
tions, it  was  originally  framed  with  reference  to  the  city 
and  its  district ; and  the  ancient  forms  were  retained, 
even  when  the  character  of  the  government  was  altered. 


120 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIOUITIES. 


§ 3.  Religious  Sentiments  of  the  Romans. 

251.  The  Romans  were  tolerant  .towards  strange 
religions,  never  forcing  their  own  belief  and  forms  of 
worship  on  other  nations ; but,  on  the  other  hand,  they 
endeavoured,,  as  soon  as  their  own  religion  had  acquired 
a certain  degree  of  stability,  to  secure  it,  as  a national 
establishment,  from  any  admixture  of  foreign  creeds 
( superstitio ) : it  was,  however,  sometimes  deemed  ex- 
pedient to  incorporate,  by  a public  resolution,  the  wor- 
ship of  some  foreign  divinity  into  the  Roman  ritual. 
The  moral  fruits  of  their  religion  were  pietas ; i.  e.  the 
discharge  of  the  duties  towards  gods  and  men,  and 
towards  parents,  relations,  friends,  and  even  strangers, 
especially  guests,  together  with  the  avoidance  of  all 
falsehood,  treachery,  and  violation  of  their  promises 
and  compacts.1 

§ 4.  History  of  Religion. 

252.  The  most  ancient  religious  worship  was  of 
Latin  and  Etruscan  origin ; but,  at  a very  early 
period,  the  national  religion  was  overlaid  and  obscured 
by  the  creed  imported  from  Greece,  to  such  an  extent, 
that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  reduce  the  combination 
to  its  original  elements.  As  the  Romans  gradually  felt 
the  influence  of  Grecian  civilization,  their  childlike 
belief  in  the  truth  of  the  theology  handed  down  to 
them  from  their  ancestors,  and  in  the  importance  of 
their  ceremonial  law,  began  to  disappear,  first  from  the 
minds  of  the  more  enlightened,  and  afterwards,  of  the 
people  in  general.  A philosophic  religion  was  now 
adopted  by  the  learned  in  the  room  of  positive  belief, 
whilst  the  common  people  eagerly  embraced  every 
form  of  Egyptian  and  Asiatic  superstition.  Yet  re- 
ligion was  upheld  by  the  deeply  rooted  veneration 
which  every  Roman  entertained  for  the  laws  and 

! Oaths  were -administered  in  judicial  proceedings;  but  we  are  noi 
accurately  acquainted  with  the  form. 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


121 


institutions  of  his  loiefathers,  long  after  all  belief  in  its 
truth  had  disappeared ; and  even  under  the  Empire, 
attempts  were  not  wanting  to  revive  its  expiring  influ- 
ence over  the  minds  of  the  people. 


The  Gods. 

§ 5.  DU  Consentes ,2 

253.  The  names  of  the  twelve  higher  divinities,  or 
Dii  consentes,  are  contained  in  the  following  verses  of 
Ennius  : — 

Juno,  Vesta,  Minerva,  Ceres,  Diana,  Venus,  Mars, 

Mercurius,  Jovi’,  Neptunus,  Vulcanus,  Apollo. 

Jupiter.  The  principal  temple  of  Jupiter,  dedicated 
also  to  Juno  and  Minerva,  was  erected  by  Tarquinius 
Priscus  on  the  Capiiolium  His  appellations  were, 
Optimus,  Maximus,  Stator,  Feretrius,  Capitolinus, 
Latiaris  (with  a festival  termed  the  Ferice  Latinos,  on 
the  Alban  Mount).  Diespiter.  Sacrifices  were  offered 
to  him  by  the  Consuls  when  they  entered  on  their  office, 
by  the  generals  on  their  setting  out  and  return  from 
war,  and  by  conquerors,  when  they  celebrated  their 
triumph.  The  Ides  were  dedicated  to  him.  Juno.  An 
Etruscan  Juno  had  a temple  at  Yeii,  and  after  the  de- 
struction of  that  city  her  statue  was  brought  to  Rome 
(Liv.  5.  21,  22);  her  names  were,  Regina,  Luclna, 
Pronuba,  Moneta ; and  her  festival,  the  Matronalia, 
on  the  first  of  March.  The  Calends  were  sacred 
to  her. 

254.  Minerva.  The  name  seems  Etruscan.  The 
Palladium,  or  image  of  this  goddess,  was  brought, 
according  to  tradition,  into  Italy  by  iEneas,  and  care- 
fully preserved  in  the  temple  of  Yesta.  Vesta.  Her 

2 As  it  is  no  easy  matter  to  classify  these  deities,  we  have  here  con- 
tented ourselves  with  enumerating  the  principal  gods  and  goddesses  wor- 
shipped at  Rome. 


6 


122 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


worship,  according  to  the  legend,  was  brought  to  Italy 
by  .ZEneas,  and  introduced  into  Rome  by  Numa.  In 
her  round  temple,  which  stood  in  the  forum  midway 
between  the  Capitoline  and  Palatine  hills,  there  was 
no  statue  of  the  goddess,  but  an  ever-burning  fire, 
which  was  fed  by  the  Vestal  virgins.  Ceres.  A few 
years  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Kings,  a temple  is  said 
to  have  been  dedicated  at  Rome  to  Ceres,  Liber,  and 
Libera.  Festival : the  Cerealia,  in  the  month  of  April, 
with  games  in  the  Circus.  Her  worship  seems,  in  the 
more  ancient  times,  to  have  had  especial  reference  to 
the  condition  of  the  Plebeians.  Neptunus.  Temple 
on  the  Campus  Martius. 

255.  Venus,  jthe  mother  of  JEneas,  and  ancestress 
of  the  Julian  family,  especially  honoured  from  the  time 
of  Julius  Caesar.  Genitrex.  _ Mars  or  Mayors,  the 
father  of  Romulus  and  Remus.  Gradivus.  His  shield. 
( ancile ) which  fell  from  heaven,  in  the  reign  of  Nuraa, 
was  preserved  in  his  temple,  of  which  the  Salii  were 
priests!  Bellona  is  mentioned  as  his  sister  or  com- 
panions In  her  temple,  on  the  Campus  Martius'/the 
Senate  decreed  triumphs,  and  received  foreign  ambas- 
sadors. Vulcanus.  Mulciber.  The  Volcanalia,  in 
August.  Apollo  had  "several  temples  at  Rome.  The 
most  celebrated  of  these  was  the  Palatine,  erected  by 
Augustus,  and  furnished  with  a library.  Ludi  Apolli- 
nares  were  introduced  in  the  second  Punic  war. 
Diana.  According  to  Livy  1.  45,  this  goddess  had  a 
temple  on  the  Aventine,  dedicated  by  Servius  Tullius, 
for  the  "common  worship  of  the  Romans  and  Latins. 
Afterwards,  several  other  temples  were  erected  to  her. 

§ 6.  The  Dii  Selecti. 

256.  Saturnus,  an  ancient  Italian  deity,  whose 
story  coincides  with  the  myths  of  the  god  Krone's':, 
When  he  was  expelled  from  heaven,  he  is  said  to  have 
taken  refuge  in  Italy,  where  he  was  hospitably  received 
by  Janus,  and  reigned  in  Latium  during  the  golden  age. 
Saturnalia,  in  December,  a general  revel,  in  which 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


12S 


(jslaves  played  a conspicuous  part  (being  excused  their 
ordinary  work,  allowed  to  wear  the  pilaus,  a badge  of 
freedom,  to  speak  their  minds  freely,  and  to  be  served 
at  table  by  their  masters).  / His  wife  was  Ops( 

257.  Janus,,  an  Etruscan  celestial  deity, j or,  per- 

haps, an  Italian  god,  ,who  presided  over  gates  and 
doors^  Among  the  Romans,  the  commencement  of 
all  undertakings  were  supposed  to  be  under  his  protec- 
tion. The  “Janus,”  mentioned  by  Livy  (1,  19),  as 
being  open  in  war,  and  closed  in  peace,  seems  to  have 
been  a gate  in  the  foruml  There  were  at  Rome  many 
such  gates  or  arched  thoroughfares  ( jani ).  He  is 

represented  Avith  two  heads  ( Janus  bifrons,  biceps). 
His  principal  feast1  was  oil  New  Year’s  Dayv  Rhea 
or  Cybele,  mater  Plain,  magna  mater.  Honoured  at 
Rome,' in  obedience  to  the  injunctions  of  the  Sibylline 
books,'  since  the  year  b.  c.  205,;  when  ambassadors 
were  sent  to  King;  Attalus,  to  bring  the  image  of  the 
goddess,  a square  stone,  from  Pessinus.  . She  had  a 
temple  and  feast  of  hev  own  (filegalesia)  at  Rome. 
Her  priests  were  called  Galli.  c 

258.  Pluto.  fl)is,  with  Proserpina,  and  other  in- 
fernal deitiel  In  the  Comitium  was  a subterranean 
vault,  which  was  supposed  to  be  the  -entrance  to  the 
lower  world,  and  was  opened  three  times  a year.  The 
days  on  which  this  took  place  were  esteemed  unlucky. 
Bacchus.  Liber.  The  Bacchanalia,  or  riotous  festival 
of  this  god,  were  abolished  by  a decree  of  the  Senate 
b.  c.  188.  Sol,  often  confounded  by  the  Romans  as 
well  as  the  Greeks  with  Apollo,  as, 'Luna  with  Diana. 
Genius,,,  a being  which  was  supposed  to  attend  man 
from  the-cyadle  to  the  grave)  and  share  his  joys  and 
sorrows.  (The  Romans  were  accustomed  to  swear  by 
their  genius,  and  to  propitiate  him  with  oblations  of 
wine,  flowers,  and  rye,  particularly  on  the  Saturnalia 
(256)  and  on  birthdays. 

§ 7.  Other  Beings  to  whom  divine  honours  were  paid. 

259.  Terminus /an  ancient  Italian  god]  whose  deifi- 
cation is  ascribed  !,-to  Numa)  His  altar  was  (on  the 


124 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


Capitoline  hill,  from  which,  as  tradition  relates,  he  re- 
fused to  stir,  when  T arquin  wished  to  remove  some 
of  the  smaller  chapels  in  order  to  make  pom  for  a 
temple  of  Jupiter.  (Liv.  1,  55.)  Consus,  (the  god  of 
secret  counsels,  confounded  with  Neptunus  equester. 
He  seems  to  have  had  a subterraneous  altar.  The 
Consualia  were  games  of  the  Circus  celebrated  in 
August.  Deus  Fidius,  originally  Semo  or  Semo  Sanc- 
tus,  the  god  of  contract^  and  protector  of  popular 
rights  ; an  ancient  Sabine  Deity.  In  later  times  we 
often  find  him  confounded  with  Hercules,  whose  wor- 
ship, according  to  tradition,  was  introduced  by  Evan- 
der.  (Liv.  1,  7.) 

260.  Quiiunus  ; perhaps  also  a Sabine  deity.  The 
name  seems  to  have  been  givefi  to  Rqmulus  after  his 
apotheosis.  Vertumnus,  a Tuscan  god,  who  presided 
over  agriculture  and  gardening.  His  wife  was  Pomo- 
na. Flora,  the  goddess  of  flowers.  Faunus,  a rural 
deity,  often  confounded  with  Pan \(Lupercus),  an  Ar- 
cadian pastoral  god,  whose  worship,  according  to 
tradition,  was  introduced  into  Italy  by  Evander  ( Lu - 
percalid).  His  wife  was  Fauna,  confounded  with  OpsJ 
Cybgle,  and  Bona  Dea,  whose  feast  was  celebrated 
only  by  women  in  the  Praetor’s  house-.; 

261.  Silvanus,  (Liv.  2,  lA  an  Italian  god  of  the 
woods.  Pales,' a pastoral  god,,whose  feast  ( Parilia ), 
April  21,  was  considered  the  birthday  of  Rome.  Lares, 
Guardians  of  the  house;  properly  the  peaceful  and 
beneficent  spirits  of  the  dead.  Their  statues  stood  on 
the  hearth.  On  festival  daj^s  oblations  of  flowers,  wine, 
rye,  and  wheat,  were  placed  before  them.  There  were 
also  lares  viales,  rurales,  compitales  ( Compitalia a 
feast  in  December).  Penates,  in  the  Penetralia  of  the 
temples  and  houses.  Their  images  stood  in  the  implu- 
vium.  Manes,  dii  manes,' the  souls  of  the  dead,  which 
were  honoured  as  beings  of  a higher  order,  and  propi- 
tiated with  an  annual  feast  ( feralia ). 

262.  Besides  these  there  was  a crowd  of  inferior 
deities,  borrowed  from  the  Grecian  mythology,  e.  g. 
Latina,  Castor  and  Pollux,  LeucotMa  ( mater  matuta) 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


125 


and  her  son  Palcemon  ( Portumnus ) ; JEsculapius, 
whose  image  was  brought  to  Rome  by  command  of 
the  oracle  in  consequence  of  a pestilence,  and  placed 
in  a temple  on  the  banks  of  the  Tiber  (b.  c.  291).  We 
find  also  various  divinities  or  personifications,  whose 
personal  existence  is  involved  in  obscurity  ; such  as 
Fortuna  ( virilis , muliebris,  equestris),  Victoria,  Pax, 
Concordia,  Pietas,  Honos,  Pallor  et  Pavor  ; Pudicitia 
patricia,  plebeia ; Dea  Roma,  &c.,  whose  figures  are 
frequently  found  on  coins;; 

§ 8.  Authority  of  the  Senate  in  religious  affairs. 

The  Senate  was  charged  with  the  superintendence, 
development,  and  political  application  of  religious  be- 
lief and  worship.  In  fulfilment  of  these  duties  it  re- 
sisted the  introduction  of  strange  forms  of  worship, 
forbade  the  Bacchanalia,  decreed  the  admission  of  new 
gods  into  the  calendar  of  the  state,  appointed  thanks- 
givings, the  examination  of  the  Sibylline  books,  &c. 

§ 9.  Colleges  of  Priests.  Pontifices. 

264.  The  whole  of  their  religious  systems,  with  the 
regulations  respecting  festival  days,  temples,  and  their 
revenue,  &c.,  was  described  (in  their  ancient  books 
{jus  pontificium,  commentarii  pontificum)  which  were 
under  the  care  of  a college  of  Pontifices ) founded  by 
Numa,  and  presided  over  by  a Pontifex  maximus  (Liv. 
1,  20).  They  were  charged  yvith  the  administration 
of  the  ecclesiastical  law,  and  decided  questions  relating 
to  it ; prescribed  the  ceremonial  of  any  new  public  or 
private  worship,  prepared  the  forms  for  public  prayers 
and  vows,  interpreted  prodigies,  inaugurated  magis- 
trates in  the  Comitia  curiata,  compiled  the  fasti,  and 
might  inflict  punishment  by  their  own  authority  on 
persons  guilty  of  offences  against  religion,  265.  The 
college  originally  consisted  of  four  members,  all  of 
whom  were  Patrician'?  ; but  after  the  passing  of  the 
lex  Ogulniar,  an  equal  number  of  Plebeians  was  ad- 


126 


MANUAL  OF  EOMAN  ANTiaUlTIES. 


mitted.3  During  Sulla’s  administration  the  number 
amounted  to  fifteen.  Under  thq  Emperors  it  was  in- 
definite. Their  insignia  were  the  toga  proetexta  and 
pilous  acutus.  Under  them  were  a crowd  of  scribes 
( pontifices  minores).  Tiie  especial  duty  of  the  Ponti- 
fex  maximus  was  to  superintend  the  service  of  Vesta, 
and  the  preparation  of  the  Annales  Maximi,  until  the 
time  of  P.  Mucius  Scsevola  (Cons.  133). 

§ 10.  Triumviri  ( afterwards  Septemviri)  Epulones. 

266.  After  the  year  b.  c.  198  these  officers  were 
charged  with  the  management  of  the  banquets  at  the 
great  festivals,  which  before  that  time  had  been  super- 
intended by  the  Pontifices. 

§11.  The  Augurs. 

267.  The  Augurs,  an  office  introduced  by  Numa, 
and  probably  of  Etruscan  origin,  were  versed  in  a 
science  derived  from  tradition  and  the  revelations  of 
their  sacred  books,  through  which  they  interpreted  the 
will  of  the  gods,  as  manifested  by  certain  appearances. 
They  consecrated  men  and  places,  and  were  consulted 
On  all  important  occasions.  The  inspection  ( spectio ) 
was  conducted,  by  a competent  magistrate;  in  conjunc- 
tion with  an  Augur,  who  interpreted  the  signs  which 
presented,  themselves,  and  whose  sentence  (obnuntiatio) 
all  were  bound  to  respect.  All  magistrates  had  the 
right  of  consulting  auspices  ( auspicia  habere;  suis 
auspiciis  rem  gerere),  except  the  Proconsuls  and  Pro- 
praetors. 268.  The  auspices  of  the  higher  functionaries 
had  precedence  over  those  of  the  lower.  In  the  year 
b.  c.  167  a lex  AElia  conferred  on  magistrates  the  right 
of  preventing  the  holding  of  Comitia,  by  simply  ob- 
serving the  signs  of  the  heavens  ( servare  de  carlo'),  a 
method  to  which  they  often  had  recourse,  until  the 
privilege  was  withdrawn,  at  least  in  part,  by  Clodius.t 

3 In  the  year  b.  c.  252  a Plebeian  foi  the  first  time  was  nominated 
Pontifex  maxinms. 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


12? 


If  any  error  occurred  in  the  auspices,  the  college 
might,  by  its  sentence,  pronounce  the  election  void, 
and  annul  the  laws  which  had  been  passed.  The  per- 
sons elected  were  then  said  to  be  vitio  creati.  Even 
when  the  belief  in  the  supernatural  knowledge  of  the 
Augurs  had  declined,  the  practice  was  still  retained  for 
political  purposes.  The  number  of  the  Augurs  was 
originally  four,  but  by  the  Ogulnian  law,  five  Plebeians 
were  added ; and  under  Sulla  it  was  increased  to  fif- 
teen. 269.  The  public  Augurs  were  highly  respected, 
and  were  generally  men  of  exalted  station.  Besides 
these  there  were  private  Augurs,  generally  Marsians 
and  Sabines,  who  interpreted  all  sorts  of  prodigies  for 
hire.  The  most  important  auguries  were  those  derived 
from  birds,  from  the  sky  (particularly  from  lightning) ; 
and  the  war  auguries,  which  were  drawn  from  the 
manner  in  which  fowls  ate  their  food  ( tripudium  solis- 
timum,  = a favourable  omen,  when  they  took  it  so 
greedily,  that  portions  fell  from  their  beaks  upon  the 
ground).  It  was  customary  to  observe  not  only  the 
song  ( oscines ),  but  the  flight  of  birds  (cilites  prcepStes). 
PThe  Augurs  took  their  station  after  midnight  on  some 
open  ground),  and  after  offering  sacrifices  and  prayers, 
proceeded  with  veiled  heads  to  trace  out  in  the  heavens 
{ternplum  capere4)  a particular  region  with  their  (crooked 
staff,  called)  lituus.  (Liv.  1,  18.) 


§ 12.  Priests  for  the  Sibylline  Books. 

270.  In  the  Sibylline  Books,  which  Tarquin,  ac- 
cording to  tradition,  received  from  the  Cumsean  Sibyl, 
was  inscribed,  as  men  believed,  the  fate  of  the  Roman 
empire.  In  great  emergencies  they  were  consulted 
( adire , inspicere,  consulere  libros  Sibyllinos)  on  the 
motion  of  the  Senate  and  the  College  of  Pontifices,  by 

4 The  ternplum  was  any  place  consecrated  ly  auspices,  and  appro- 
priated to  them.  The  expression  is  applied  also  to  the  sky,  which  was 
divided  by  the  lituus  into  certain  regions.  Most  of  the  cedes  sacrce  at 
Rome  were  templa  ; as  well  as  the  spots  on  which  important  public  busi- 
ness was  transacted,  such  as  the  curia,  rostra,  &c. 


128 


MANUAL  Of  ROMAN  ANTIOUITIES. 


priests  appointed  for  that  purposeAwho  also  offered  the 
sacrifices  prescribed  by  the  books.  Their  number  at 
first  was  two ; then  ten,  five  Patrician  and  five  Ple- 
beian ; and  afterwards  fifteen  ( decemviri  sacrorum, 
quindecemvlri  libris  Sibyllinis  inspiciendis  or  sacris 
faciendis).  271.  In  addition  to  these  duties  they  were 
charged  with  the  management  of  the  yearly  games  in 
honour  of  Apollo  and  Diana,  and  the  Ludi  seculares. 
The  Sibylline  Books  were  kept  in  the  temple  of  Jupi- 
ter Capitollnus,  but  after  their  destruction  by  fire  in 
the  year  b.  c.  83,  fresh  Sibylline  oracles  were  compiled, 
and  deposited  by  order  of  Augustus  in  the  temple  of 
Apollo.5 


§ 13.  Fetiales. 

272.  The  Fetiales  were  a college  of  priests  insti- 
tuted by  Numa,  and  established  on  a more  regular  plan 
by  Ancus  Martins ,6  Their  business  was  to  conduct 
the  religious  ceremonies  practised  in  declarations  of 
war,  and  when  peace  was  concluded.  If  any  other 
nation  encroached  on  the  Roman  frontier,  Fetiales 
were  sent  to  demand  satisfaction  with  the  usual  cere- 
monies ( res  repetere,  clarigatio).  If  this  were  not 
granted  within  a specified  time,  war  was  declared  by 
throwing  a lance  into  the  enemy’s  territory,  a cere- 
mony which,  at  a later  period,  when  more  distant  wars 
were  waged,  was  performed  figuratively  in  front  of  the 
temple  of  Bellona.  273.  The  Fetiales  were  also  em- 
ployed in  concluding  alliances,  and  in  offering  the 
sacrifices  required  on  such  occasions  ( icere , ferire 
foedus,  Liv.  1,  24).  Their  number  was  twenty.  The 
President  was  styled  pater  patratuk  Their  influence, 
at  least  in  later  times,  was  insignificant  as  compared 

6 Another  method  of  ascertaining  the  decrees  of  the  gods  was  the 
sortes  sacrcs,,  or  tablets  inscribed  with  hieroglyphics,  which  were  kept  in 
the  temples  of  Fortuna  at  Prasneste  and  Antium,  and  consulted  publicly 
{sortes  ducere). 

6 The  jus  fetiale  seeno  to  have  been  framed  by  him  on  the  model  of 
the  iEquicolas 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


129 


with  the  four  colleges  already  described.  Even  as 
late  as  the  time  of  the  Emperors,  mention  is  made  of 
Fetiales. 

§ 14.  Haruspices. 

274.  The  Augurs  were  accustomed,  on  public  occa- 
sions, to  interpret  the  will  of  the  gods  from  certain 
definite  sign's^;  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Haru- 
spices, who  were  not  a sacred  college,  employed  them- 
selves in  drawing  omens  from  an  examination  of  en- 
trails ( extispicia ),  and  in  setting  before  the  people  the 
demands  ( postulata ) of  the  gods,  and  the  means  (gen- 
erally hostice  majores,  novendiale  sacrificium 7),  by 
which  such  impending  misfortunes  might  be  averted, 
as  were  threatened  by  lightning  and  other  portents 
( prodigia , portenta , monstra,  ostenta,  procurare  pro- 
digia).  Their  science  (haruspiclna) , concerning 
which,  in  Cicero’s  time,  there  existed  libri  Haruspi- 
cini  et  fulgurates  et  rituales,  was  taught  in  Etruria  in 
schools  from  which  it  was  disseminated  throughout 
Italy.  From  these  schools  Haruspices  were  frequently 
summoned  to  Rome  by  the  Senate,  on  the  motion  of 
the  pontifices.  275.  In  the  latter  days  of  the  Republic, 
the  Haruspices  acquired  greater  importance.  They 
often  accompanied  the  army  in  its  campaigns,  and 
were  attached  to  the  suite  of  provincial  governors) 
and  even  in  the  time  of  the  Empire,  attempts  - were 
made  to  sustain  the  Etruscan  discipline ; but  it  was 
gradually  superseded,  and  thrown  into  the  shade  by 
the  astrological  and  prophetic  science  of  the  Magians 
and  Chaldeans. 

§ 15.  Rex  sacrificulus,  Flamines,  Curiones. 

276.  The  Rex  sacrificulus  or  sacrorum,  who  aftei 
the  expulsion  of  the  Kings  superintended  the  religious 
observances  formerly  conducted  by  them,  was  never- 
theless subject  to  the  Pontifex.  None  but  Patricians 

? See  Cicero,  Orat.  in  Cat.  3,  8. 

6* 


'SO 


MANUAL  OP  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


could  fill  this  office,  nor  was  it  tenable  in  conjunction 
with  any  other  appointment., 

277.  Flatnines.  Priests  appointed  for  the  temple- 
service  of  particular  gods,  each  of  whom  had  ondv 
There  were  fifteen  of  them  altogether;  of  whom  the 
chief  were  the  Flamen  Dialis,  Martialis,  and  Quiri- 
nalis.  These  were  always  Patricians.  The  Flamen 
Dialis  was  subject  to  many  peculiar  restrictions.  The 
death  of  his  wife  ( Flaminica ),  by  whom  he  was  assisted 
in  the  performance  of  various  ceremonies,  rendered 
him,  as  a matter  of  course,  incapable  of  retaining 
office.  As  the  Emperors  were  gradually  deified,  the 
number  of  Flamens  increased  very  considerably.  Cu- 
riones.  Priests  for  the  curiae  under  a Curio  maximus. 
This  office  was  latterly  held  by  Plebeians  as  well  as 
Patricians. 

§ 16.  Communities  of  Priests  for  the  service  of  par- 
ticular deities — the  Vestals. 

278.  The  Virgines  Vestales  were  appointed  by 
Numa  to  feed  the  sacred  fire,  and  guard  the  relics 
which  were  kept  in  the  temple  of  Vesta.  They  en- 
joyed important  privileges,  such  as  freedom  from 
parental  control,  a Lictor,  a particular  seat  at  the  pub- 
lic shows,  and  the  right  of  liberating  any  condemned 
malefactor,  whom  they  might  meet  on  his  way  to  exe- 
cution. They  were,  however,  subject  to  the  superin- 
tendence of  the  Pontifex  maximus,  who  could  inflict  a 
severe  punishment  on  them  for  suffering  the  sacred  fire 
to  be  extinguished,  or  for  unchastity.  Vestals  con- 
victed of  the  last  mentioned  offence,  were  buried  alive 
in  the  Campus  sceleratus.  279.  The  number  of  Vestal 
virgins  was  at  first  two,  then  four,  and  afterwards, 
when  the  tribes  were  increased,  was  raised  to  six. 
They  wore  a white  robe,  and  a fillet  round  the  head 
( infula ).  Whenever  a vacancy  occurred,  the  Pontifex 
maximus  was  required  by  the  lex  Papia  to  find  twenty 
virgins  of  good  family,  free  from  bodily  defects,  and 
with  various  other  qualifications,  one  of  whom  was 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


131 


chosen  by  lot  (capers  virginem  Vestalem).  At  a later 
period  they  were  generally  admitted  as  candidates  on 
the  recommendation  of  their  parents.  Their  term  of 
service  was  thirty  years,  at  the  expiration  of  which 
they  were  permitted  to  marry. 


§17.  Salii,  Luperci,  Fratres  Arvales,  Sodales  Titii, 
Galli. 

280.  Salii  Gradivi,  priests  of  Mars,  twelve  in 
number,  appointed  by  Kuma  to  guard  the  (sacred 
shield)  anclle  which  fell  from  heaven,  with  the  eleven 
made  after  the  same  pattern  (to  prevent  the  loss  by 
theft  of  the  genuine  one,  on  the  safety  of  which  the 
existence  of  Rome  was  supposed  to  depend).  On  the 
first  of  March,  they  performed  a solemn  dance  through 
the  city,  singing  at  the  same  time  the  carmen  Saliare 
(Liv.  1,  20).  They  were  exclusively  Patricians.  Salii 
Palloris  et  Pavoris,  also  Patricians.  Their  creation  is 
ascribed  to  Tullius  Hostilius.  281.  Luperci,  priests  of 
Pan,  who  marched  in  procession  (on  the  Litpercalia) 
from  the  grotto  of  Pan  ( Lupercal ),  through  the  city  to 
the  Palatine  hill,  wrapt  in  goat-skins.  On  reaching 
the  hill  they  offered  sacrifice  to  Pan.  The  establish- 
ment of  this  worship  is  attributed  to  Evander  (Liv.  1, 
5),  and  was  introduced  into  Rome  by  Romulus.  The 
Luperci  Julii  were  established  by  the  Senate  in  honour 
of  Julius  Caesar.  Fratres  Arvales,  twelve  in  number, 
superintended  the  great  yearly  rural  sacrifice  of  purifi- 
cation, at  which  they  sang  a hymn  in  the  ancient  lan- 
guage of  Latium.  Sodales  Titii  were  appointed  for 
the  conservation  of  the  ancient  sacred  usages  of  the 
Sabines.  Under  Tiberius,  there  arose  Sodales  Augus- 
tales,  and  others  again  after  the  apotheoses  of  succes- 
sive Emperors.  Galli,  priests  of  Cybele,  were  Phry- 
gian eunuchs,  who  marched  in  noisy  procession  through 
the  city  on  the  feast  of  Cybele,  with  singing  and  music, 
and  collected  offerings. 


132 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


§ 18.  Election  of  Priests. 

282.  The  colleges  of  priests  were  filled  up  by  co- 
optation. When  a Pontifex  max’  mus  died,  his  col- 
leagues elected  a Pontifex,  and  the  people  chose  the 
Pontifex  maximus  from  the  members  of  the  college ; 
but  in  the  year  b.  c.  104,  it  was  enacted  by  the  lex 
Domitia,  that  the  election  of  priests  should  be  con- 
ducted by  seventeen  tribes  chosen  by  lot,  and  that  the 
person  so  elected  should  be  confirmed  in  his  office  by 
the  co-optation  of  the  college.*  Sulla  annulled  this 
arrangement ; but  it  was  afterwards  re-established.  At 
a later  period,  the  right  of  nomination  was  claimed  by 
the  Emperor.  Bodily  defects  disqualified  for  the  priest- 
hood. As  the  priests  were  not  magistrates,  all,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Rex  sacrif  cuius,  were  permitted 
to  hold  a plurality  of  spiritual,  or  spiritual  and  secular 
offices.  The  Sacerdotia  were  tenable  for  life. 


§ 19.  Priests’  Servants. 

283.  Several  servants  and  assistants  were  assigned 
to  the  priests  for  the  performance  of  the  inferior  offices : 
for  example,  the  popes,  victimarii,  slayers  of  victims ; 
ccditui,  sacristans  ; pullarii  (who  kept  the  sacred  birds, 
269),  extispices,  tibicines,  tubicines,  &c.  The  Flcimen 
Dialis  and  the  Yestal  virgins  had  Lictors.  The  boys 
who  attended  on  the  Flamen  Dialis,  and  assisted  at 
other  sacred  ceremonies,  were  termed  camilli. 


Worship. 

§ 20.  Worship  in  general. 

284.  Their  worship  was  either  public,  and  con- 
cerned the  whole  state,  or  portions  of  it,  such  as  the 
tribes  or  curice ; or  private,  belonging  to  individuals  or 
gentes,  in  which  it  was  hereditary.  We  have  already 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


133 


spoken  of  the  manner  in  which  the  will  of  the  gods 
was  ascertained  by  means  of  auspices,  extispicia,  and 
the  Sibylline  books.  The  rest  of  their  worship  con- 
sisted of  prayers,  vows,  sacrifices,  and  the  solemn 
observance  of  festivals  and  games  in  honour  of  the 
gods.  All  acts  of  worship  were  conducted  in  a regular 
and  solemn  manner ; every  object  being  removed  which 
could  produce  an  unfavourable  impression.  Thus  it  was 
required  that  all  the  attendants  should  be  clean  in  their 
persons  and  dress,  and  that  no  harsh  sounds  or  words 
of  evil  omen  should  be  heard ; that  the  best  victims 
should  be  selected,  and  led  without  compulsion  to  the 
altar:  that  the  priests  should  be  free  from  bodily  de- 
fects ; and  that  no  punishments  should  be  inflicted  on 
festival  days. 


§21.  Prayers  and  Vows. 

285.  Public  prayers  were  offered  up  by  the  magis- 
trates, after  a form  prepared  and  recited  by  the  priest 
(who  was  said  prceire  carmen).  The  public  days  of 
supplication  ( supplicationes ) were  either  obsecrationes, 
appointed  for  propitiating  the  favour  of  the  gods  and 
averting  their  wrath,  or  thanksgivings  (gratulationes) . 
Under  this  head  may  be  classed  the  great  festal  ban- 
quets, at  which  the  statues  of  the  gods  were  brought 
forth  (and  placed  at  table  on  couches  before  their  sacri- 
ficial feasts)  ( lectisternium , Liv.  5.  13;  ad  omnia  pul- 
vinaria  sacrijicatum).  Prayers  were  often  accom- 
panied by  vows  (vovere ; vota  facer e ; (a  person  whose 
prayer  was  granted,  and  therefore  his  vow  due,  was) 
voti  compos,  reus,  damnatus) . Persons  who  had  been 
'n  danger,  during  a sea  voyage  for  instance,  were 
accustomed,  in  fulfilment  of  their  vow,  to  suspend  a 
representation  of  the  event  ( tabula  votiva ) in  the  tem- 
ple of  the  god  to  whom  they  attributed  their  preserva- 
tion. 


134 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


§ 22.  Sacrifices. 

286.  The  sacrificed  (sacrficia)  were  the  most  im- 
portant part  of  public  worship.8  Particular  animals 
were  offered  to  each  of  the  gods.  The  whole  proceed- 
ing was  exceedingly  solemn  and  ceremonial.  The 
sacrificer  approached  the  altar:  clothed  in  white.  The 
victim  ( victima , liostia),  which  must  be  without  blem- 
ish, and  never  have  felt  the  yoke,  was  decorated  with 
ribbons  ( infulce , vittce),  and  garlands,  and  its  horns 
sometimes  gilded.  It  was  led  to  the  altar  by  an  atten- 
dant (pop a).  The  priest ;,then  called  on 'the  unpurified 
to  withdraw  (procul  este  profani),  and  commanded 
silence  ( favete  Unguis) . The  brow  of  the  victim,  as 
well  as  the  altar,  was  sprinkled  with  the  sacrificial  cake 
mingled  with  salt  ( mola  salsa;  whence,  immolare). 

287.  The  animal  was  then  slaughtered,  and  its  entrails 
inspected  by 1 the  extispices.  The  offal  ( exta ) was 
burnt,  and  a solemn  banquet  prepared.  A purificatory 
offering  ( lustratio ) was  so  termed,  when  the  victim  was 
led  round  the  object  intended  to  be  purified.  It  was 
either  public  or  private  ( lustratio  populi,  after  the 
census,  urbis,  agrorum ).  i We  find  in  the  Roman  his- 
tory, instances  of  persons,  who  dedicated  or  devoted 
themselves  to  the  gods  in  the  field  of  battle,  according 
to  a settled  form,  and  sought  death  that  they  might  in- 
sure victory  to  the  Roman  arms. 

§ 23.  Holy  Seasons  and  Festivals. 

288.  Days  were  either  dedicated  to  the  worship  of 
the  gods,  and  consequently  free  from  public  business 
( dies  festi),  or  open  for  the  transaction  of  secular 
affairs  ( dies  profesti9).  Of  the  festivals  (feriai),  a 

8 The  term  sacrum  expresses^every  thing  consecrated  by  man  to  the 
service  of  the  gods.  - 

9 Dies  intercisi  were  days  of  which  a portion  was  set  apart  for  each 
of  these  objects.  We  must  distinguish  between  this  division  and  that  of 
dies  fasti,  which  were  days  set  apart  for  legal  proceedings  in  opposition 
to  the  nefasli.  Another  division  was  into  fortunate  days  and  unfortunate 
(infausli,  atri),  on  which  it  was  not  considered  advisable  to  commence 


ADMINISTRATION  OP  THE  STATE. 


135 


great  number  were  observed  with  solemnity.  They 
were  either  stativce , certain  fixed  days  of  the  year,  or 
conceptivcz,  which  were  appointed  by  a magistrate  (e. 
g.  the  fericB  Latince  on  the  Alban  mount,  introduced 
by  Tarquinius  Superbus),  or  imperatives , on  particular 
occasions;  e.  g.  the  sacrum  novendiale  (Liv.  1,  31), 
appointed  in  consequence  of  its  having  rained  stones. 
289.  Our  knowledge  of  the  festivals  is  derived  from  the 
Festi  calendared,  which  contain  a list  of  holidays,  and 
from  the  poetical  account  of  them  given  by  Ovid  in  his 
Fasti.  Among  th eferice  stativce,  we  may  mention,  as 
examples, -the  Lupercalia,  on  the  fifteenth  of  February  ) 
the  Matronalia,  and  the  festival  of  Mars,  on  the  first 
of  March ; the  Megalesia,  or  feast  of  Cybele,  on  the 
fourth  of  April ; the  Parilia,  on  the  twenty-first  of 
April ; (the  feast  of  the  Bona  Dea,  on  the  first  of  May  ; 
of  Castor  and  Pollux,  with  the  transvectio  equitum,  or 
annual  solemn  procession  of  Knights,  on  the  Ides  (i.  e. 
the  fifteenth)  of  July;  and  the  Saturnalia,  a revel 
which  began  on  the  nineteenth  of  December,  and 
lasted  several  days  (256). 

§ 24.  Games. 

290.  To  the  festal  celebration  of  public  worship 
belonged  also  the  games,  which,  were  either  stati,  per- 
manent, like  the  ludi  Apollinares,  and  the  hid  a Romani, 
rnagni  or  maximij  instituted  by  Tarquinius  Priscus,  in 
honour  of  Jupiter,  Juno,  and  Minerva,  and  held  in  the 
Circus  Maximus  during  eight  days  in  the  month  of 
September  ; or  extraordinary,  which  were  celebrated 
in  consequence  of  vows,  or  at  the  funerals  of  private 
persons.  The  games  were  circenses,  scenici,  and  gla- 
diatorii.  291.  The  circenses  (from  the  Circus,  a long 
building  rounded  at  each  end)  were  of  Etruscan  origin. 
(Liv.  1,  35.)  They  were  introduced  with  a solemn 

any  important  undertakings.  Of  this  character  were  the  days  which  im- 
mediately followed  festivals,  or  which  succeeded  the  calendae,  nonce,  and 
idus,  or  days  signalized  by  any  public  calamity,  such  as  the  dies  Alliensis 
(anniversary  of  the  defeat  of  the  Roman  army  by  the  Gauls  at  the  Allia. 


136  MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 

procession,  and  consisted  of  the  cursus  equester  on 
horseback,  or  in  chariots  with  b ig  a or  quadriga, ; the 
certamen  gymnicum,  the  ntvra&lov  of  the  Greeks  ( saltus , 
cursus,  lucta,  pugillatus,  discus)  the  pugna  pedestris  el 
equestris,  e.  g.  Troja,  a sort  of  tournament  on  horse- 
back ; venationes,  combats  of  wild  beasts,  either  with 
one  another,  or  with  men  hired  for  the  purpose,  or  con- 
demned malefactors  (in  the  time  of  the  Emperors,  ad 
bestias  damnati ) ; naumachice,  naval  engagements  in 
the  Circus,  or  in  buildings  erected  for  that  purpose  and 
supplied  with  water.  292.  The  scenici  seem  to  have 
been  introduced  in  the  yean  b.  c.  364,  when,  in  order 
to  avert  a pestilence,  festivals  Were  instituted,  to  which 
actors  and  dancers  were  brought  from  Etruria.  (Liv. 
7,  2.)  They  were  performed  in  theatra,  large  semi- 
circular buildings,  the  round  part  of  which  was  fitted 
up  with  benches  ( cavea , cunei),  the  remainder  being- 
occupied  by  the  scena ; (the  orchestra  was  also  semi- 
circular, and  set  apart  for  Senators,  foreign  Ambassa- 
dors, &c.  In  b.  c.  63,  the  next  fourteen  benches  were 
appropriated  to  the  Knights  by  a law  of  L.  Roscius 
Otho ).  The  theatres  were  without  a roof,  but  were 
generally  sheltered  from  the  sun  or  rain  by  canvas 
stretched  over  the  top  ; they  were  built  of  wood,  and 
broken  up  when  the  performance  was  over,  until  the 
time  of  Pompey,  who  was  the  first  that  constructed  a 
theatre  of  stone.  The  dramatic  pieces  were  purchased 
from  their  authors  by  the  ASdiles.  The  recitation  was 
accompanied  by  flutes,  and  the  actors  generally  wore 
masks  (persona).  293.  The  gladiatorii  (munera)  were 
also  of  Etruscan  origin,  and  first  introduced  at  funeral 
solemnities ; but  subsequently  presented  at  banquets, 
or  for  the  amusement  of  the  people,  sometimes  at  the 
public  expense,  and  sometimes  at  the  cost  of  indivi- 
duals. They  were  performed  in  an  amphitheatre  or 
round  building,  furnished  in  the  centre  with  a stage 
[arena)  for  combat.  The  gladiators  were  divided  into 
families.  They  were  generally  slaves,  prisoners,  male- 
factors/and sometimes  free  men  who  hired  themselves 
out  for  that  purpose  294.  They  were  instructed  S.by 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


137 


a lanista  in  the  use  of  various  weapons,  from  which 
they  derived  their  different  names  of  Scimnites  (from 
their  Samnite  armour,  especially  the  scutum),  retiarii 
(from  the  net,  rete,  with  which  they  tried  to  entangle 
their  adversary,  whom  they  then  dispatched  with  their 
three-pointed  lance,  tridens  or  fuscina),  essedarii  (from 
their  fighting  from  the  Gallic  or  British  war-chariots, 
essSda),  andabatce  (who  fought  blindfold,  having  hel- 
mets with  no  apertures  for  the  eyes,  mirmillones, 
whose  name  was  from  noQfivQog,  the  image  of  a fish  on 
their  helmet ; their  arms  were  Gallic  ; and  they  gene- 
rally fought  with  the  retiarii,  or  with  Thraces,  armed 
with  the  Thracian  round  buckler,  and  sica,  dagger). 
295.  They  fought,  at  first,  with  blunt  weapons  ( rudes , 
arma  lusoria),  in  order  to  prove  their  skill  ( preclude - 
bant).  The  arma  decretoria  were  then  put  into  their 
hands.  The  fate  of  those  who  were  conquered  de- 
pended on  the  will  of  the  people  ( pollicem  premere,  to 
turn  down  the  thumb,  the  sign  that  they  were  to  be 
spared  ; vertere,  to  turn  it  up,  the  signal  for  their  death, 
recipe  ferrum).  The  gladiators  were  men  of  rough 
and  savage  habits,  and  their  name  was  often  used  as  a 
term  of  reproach. 

§ 25.  Holy  Places  and  Furniture. 

296.  Buildings  and  spots  were  set  apart  for  the 
celebration  of  public  worship.  Of  this  sort  were  templa, 
cedes,  sacrce,  delubra,  fana,  sacella,  cediculce,  luci.  To 
the  temple  belonged  the  area,  vestibulum,  cella,  statua,1 
ara,  altar ia, 2 vasa  sacra,  e.  g.  the  thuribulum,  acerra, 
patSrce,  tripOdes,  &c.  Places  which  had  been  struck 
by  lightning  were  enclosed  and  treated  as  sacred  ( biden- 
tal, either  from  bidens,  a sheep,  the  victim  by  which  it 
was  consecrated,  or  bidens  — forked  lightning ; puteal, 

1 According  to  one  accountKthe  Romans  for  one  hundred  and  seventy 
years  hadvno  statues  of  the  gods.  . 

2 The  Wrd  ara  properly  signifies  any  elevated  spot.  It  is  frequently 
used  to  express  the  smaller  altars  in  front  of  the  statue,  the  term  altaria 
being  applied  to  the  great  altar  of  sacrifice  outside  the  temple. 


138 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


not  a general  term  for  this,  but  for  the  stone  enclosure 
round  a well,  puteus.  The  spot  in  the  forum  where  a 
sacellum  had  been  struck  by  lightning,  was  enclosed 
by  Scribonius  Libo  with  such  a puteal ; puteal  Libo- 
nis ).  297.  Among  the  sacred  things  were  the  infulce 

and  vittcB,  bands  and  ribbons  which  were  bound  round 
the  head  of  the  priest,  as  well  as  round  the  altar  and 
victim  ; and  verbence,  sacred  herbs  and  leaves,  used 
by  the  priests  at  their  sacrifices,  and  by  the  Fetiales. 
Every  thing  belonging  to  the  gods,  or  connected  with 
religion,  was  solemnly  dedicated  by  sacrifices  and 
prayer.  The  dedication  of  temples  ( dedicatio ) was 
performed  either  by  the  Consuls,  or  by  duumviri  espe- 


were  frequently  the  parties  uy  wnom  the  building  of 
the  temple  had  been  vowed. 


298.  The  division  of  time  being  closely  connected 
with  the  observances  of  religion  and  festivals,  was  also 
intrusted  to  the  care  of  the  Pontifices.  The  year  of 
Romulus  seems  to  have  contained  ten  months,  and 
began  in  March.  March,  May,  July  ( Quintllis ),  and 
October,  had  each  thirty-one  days,  and  the  other 
months  thirty.  Thus  the  year  consisted  of  three  hun- 
dred and  four  days.3  Others  suppose,  that  the  year  of 
Romulus  was  a solar  year,  with  an  indefinite  number 
of  days  in  each  month.  Numa’s  year  (or,  according 
to  other  authorities,  that  of  Tarquinius  Priscus)  was  a 
lunar  year,  consisting  of  twelve  months,  of  which 
January  and  February  were  the  last.  299.  This  year 
had  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  days,  and  was  at 
once  a lunar  year,  and  one  in  which  it  was  necessary 
to  have  regard  to  the  sun,  there  being  many  feasts 
which  were  to  be  held  both  on  particular  days  of  the 

3 According  to  Niebuhr,  six  such  years,  or  1824  days,  which  corre- 
sponded within  one  day  to  five  solar  years  of  three  hundred  and  sixty-five 
days,  made  a great  year  or  lustrum,  a portion  of  time,  in  which  the  be- 
ginning of  the  civil  year  corresponded  with  that  of  the  solar. 


ciallv  appointed 


These  duumviri 


§ 26.  Division  of  Time. 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE  STATE. 


139 


month,  and  at  particular  seasons,  e.  g.  the  Cerealia, 
Parilia,  on  which,  according  to  tradition,  Rome  was 
founded.  To  secure  the  necessary  agreement,  recourse 
was  had  to  intercalation  ; a process  which  seems  to 
have  been  more  accurately  defined  in  the  Decemviral 
year,  where  a short  month  of  twenty-two  or  twenty- 
three  days  was  intercalated  every  second  year.  This 
month  (mensis  intercalaris ) was  inserted  towards  the 
end  of  the  year;  viz.  after  the  twenty-third  of  Febru- 
ary, the  five  last  days  of  that  month  being  compre- 
hended in  it.4  300.  The  record  of  this  arrangement 
was  kept  by  the  Pontifex  maximus ; but  ignorance  and 
dishonesty  (the  attempts,  for  example,  made  by  certain 
parties  to  prolong  the  period  of  their  continuance  in 
the  magistracy,  or  of  holding  government  contracts) 
latterly  produced  such  confusion,  that  in  the  year  b.  c. 
46  ( annus  confusionis,  an  intercalated  year  with  four 
hundred  and  forty-five  days),  Julius  Caesar,  with  the 
assistance  of  the  astronomer  Sosigenes,  undertook  a 
complete  reformation  of  the  system.  The  Egyptian 
solar  year  was  now  introduced,  and  three  years  of 
three  hundred  and  sixty-five  days  were  regularly  suc- 
ceeded by  a fourth  of  three  hundred  and  sixty-six. 
Caesar  inserted  the  intercalary  day,  between  a.  d.  vii. 
et  vi.  cal.  Mai't.j  and  named  it  a.  d.  bissextum  cal. 
Mart.'':  but  shortly  after  his  death  an  error  was  again 
introduced  by  the  premature  intercalation  of  a year. 
301.  After  lasting  thirty-six  years,  this  error  was  cor- 
rected by  Augustus,  who  named  Sextilis,  August,  and 


4 Ideler  has  remarked,  that  this  intercalation  of  ninety  days  in  eight 
years,  answers  to  the  Oktaeteris  of  the  Greeks  in  the  time  of  the  Decem- 
viri. According  to  Niebuhr,  the  lunar  year  was  brought  into  accordance 
with  the  solar  by  the  insertion  ten  times  in  twenty-two  years,  and  fifty 
times  in  one  hundred  and  ten,  of  one  month,  consisting  alternately  of 
twenty-two  and  twenty-three  days.  At  the  fiftieth  intercalation,  in  order 
to  coincide  accurately  with  the  solar  year,  instead  of  a month  of  twenty- 
three  days,  one  of  twenty-two  days  was  inserted  ; and  for  the  purpose  of 
ascertaining  when  the  fiftieth  time  arrived,  each  intercalation  was  marked 
by  the  driving  of  a nail.  A period  of  one  hundred  and  ten  years  was 
termed  a seculum,  and  contained  twenty-two  lustres,  a portion  of  time  in 
which  the  years  of  ten  and  twelve  months  and  the  solar  year  again  began 
on  the  same  day. 


140 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


Quintilis,  July;  because  Julius  Caesar  was  born  in  that 
month.  The  month  was  divided  by  the  idus  into  two 
unequal  portions';  the  idus  in  March,  May,  July,  and 
October,  falling  on  the  fifteenth,  and  in  the  other 
months  on  the  thirteenth.  The  eighth  day  before  the 
idus  was  termed  nonce*  (according  to  the  Roman 
practice  of  including  the  day  from  which  they  counted 
back).  The  first  of  each  month  was  called  Calendce. 
In  dating;  they  reckoned  backwards  from  the  follow- 
ing term  (i.  e.  from  the  following  Calends,  Nones,  or 
Ides) ; for  example  : the  thirty- first  of  January  was  de- 
nominated pridie  calendas  Februanas ; the  thirtieth, 
ante  diem  tertium  calendas  Februarias  ; and  so  in  all 
other  cases.  (For  a fuller  account,  see  the  questions 
on  this  section.)  302.  The  Roman  week  contained 
eight  days,6  until  the  introduction  of  the  week  of  seven 
days  with  the  Christian  religion.  They  divided  the 
day  into  twelve  hours,  which  varied  according  to  the 
length  of  the  days,  and  the  night  into  the  same  number. 
Three  hours  of  the  night  made  a vigilia.  The  progress 
of  time  was  indicated  either  by  sun-dials  ( horologia  so- 
laria7) or  by  water-clocks  ( clepsydrae ).  Since  it  is 
only  at  the  equinoxes  that  the  day  consists  of  twelve 
hours  in  our  sense  of  the  word  hour,  the  length  of  an 
hour,  and  time  of  the  morning,  at  which  the  first  hour 
began,  were  both  subject  to  great  variations.  303.  Our 
hours,  therefore,  will  sometimes  differ  widely  from  those 
of  the  Romans,  the  difference  increasing  directly  as  the 
distance  from  either  equinox,  and  being  greatest,  there- 
fore, at  the  solstices.  Ideler  gives  the  following  approxi- 
mate calculation,  for  the  summer  and  winter  solstices 
(cf.  Becker’s  Gallus,  p.  252,  Eng.  Trans.)  To  simplify 
it,  the  seconds  are  omitted. 


6 (In  March,  July,  October,  May 
The  nones  are  on  the  seventh  day. 

hence  the  Ides  on  the  fifteenth). 

8 Nundinal,  i.  e.  those  days  on  which  the  country  people  come  into 
the  city  to  buy  and  sell. 

7 The  sun-dial  seems  to  have  been  introduced  about  the  time  of  the 
war  with  Pyrrhus,  and  th?  water-clock  at  a later  period. 


CIVIL  AND  PRIVATE  LIFE. 


141 


s.  s. 

= Summer 

Solstice. 

w. 

s.  = 

Winter 

Solstice 

Hour. 

s 

S. 

W 

s. 

Hour. 

s. 

S. 

w. 

S. 

I 

4 

27 

7 

33 

7 

12 

12 

2 

5 

42 

8 

17 

8 

1 

15 

12 

44 

3 

6 

58 

9 

2 

9 

2 

31 

1 

29 

4 

8 

13 

9 

46 

• 10 

3 

46 

2 

13 

5 

9 

49 

10 

31 

11 

5 

2 

2 

58 

6 

10 

44 

11 

15 

12 

6 

17 

3 

42 

Day 

ends 

7 

33 

4 

27 

304.  The  following  lines  from  Martial  are  often 
quoted  for  the  Roman  distribution  of  the  day,  with 
regard  to  the  various  employment  of  its  hours : 


Prima  salutantes  atque  altera  continet  hora  ; 

Exercet  raucos  tertia  causidicos : 

In  quintarn  varius  extendit  Roma  labores ; 

Sexta  quies  lassis,  septima  finis  erit ; 
Sufficit  in  nonam  nitidis  octava  paleestris  ; 
Imperat  exstractos  frangere  nona  toros. 


CIVIL  AND  PRIVATE  LIFE. 

§ 1.  Private  and  Domestic  Life. — Education. 

305.  The  subjects  of  marriage,  divorce,  parental 
authority,  and  the  law  of  inheritance  have  been  already 
discussed.  The  habits  of  female  lifq^gradually  lost  their 
original  simplicity  and  domestic  character  j whilst  the 
love  of  display  and  extravagance  increased  to  such  a 
degree,  that  in  the  time  of  the  second  Punic  wai)  an 
attempt  was  made  by  the  Tribune  Oppius  to  limit  the  ex- 
penditure by  law.  Women  frequently  visited  the  places 
of  public  amusement,  and  were  altogether  strangers  to 
the  retiring  modesty  which  distinguished  the  ladies  of 
Greece.  308.  The  education  of  children  was  of  a 
practical  and  eminently  political  character!-  In  the 
olden  time  an  important  part  of  the  instruction  given 
to  young  persons,;  consisted  of  lectures  on  the  laws  of 
the  Twelve  Tables,  and  gymnastic  exercises*  At  a 
later  period  education  was  conducted  more  on  the 
Grecian  plan.  The  boys,  after  learning  the  first  ele- 


142 


MANUAL  OF  HOMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


merits,  either  at  home  or  at  elementary  schools  under 
the  superintendence  of  a pcedagogus,  attended  the 
schools  of  the  grammarians,  where  they  read  the 
works  of  the  national  poets  and  learnt  Greek.  307. 
On  assuming  the  toga  virilis ,s  they  endeavoured  to 
qualify  themselves  for  their  future  position  by  rhetorical 
exercises,  diligent  attendance  pn  public  proceedings, 
and  taking,  at  an  early  age,  their  share  of  military 
duty,  frequently  under  the  superintendence  of  distin- 
guished men,  to  whom  they  were  recommended  by 
their  fathers  or  relations.  Opportunities  were  afforded 
them  of  completing  their  gymnastic  education  by  join- 
ing in  the  sports  of  the  Campus  Martius.  Many  of 
them  also  visited  the  Grecian  cities,  especially  Athens, 
for  the  purpose  of  studying  under  the  most  renowned 
philosophers. 

§ 2.  Names. 

308.  Of  the  three  names  usually  borne  by  the  Ro- 
mans, the  first  ( prcenomen ),  as  Marcus  or  Caius,  indi- 
cates the  individual ; the  second  {nomen),  as  Tullius, 
Julius,  the  gens;  the  third  {cognomen),  as  Cicero, 
Caesar,  Scipio,  the  family  or  stirpsf  A fourth  name 
was  sometimes  added,  which  had  been  acquired  by 
illustrious  actions,  or  by  adoption,  or  other  circum- 
stances, e.  g.  Cornelius  Scipio  Afeicanus  ASmilianus 
Minor;  M.  Portius  Cato  Censorius  Sapiens;  P. 
Licinius  Crassus  Mucianus  Dives.  The  daughters 
bore  the  name  of  the  gens,  Mucia,  Livia,  Cornelia, 
Tullia. 

§ 3.  Sources  of  Income. 

309.  Even  allowing  that  trade  was  carried  on  at  a 
very  early  period,  as  the  founding  of  Ostia,  and  the 

8 A solemn  act,  which  took  place  in  the  forum.  On  this  occasion  the 
toga  pratexta  was  exchanged  for  a toga  virilis  or  pura,  as  a sign  of 
their  having  attained  the  age  of  manhood,  and  entered  on  a life  of  greater 
freedom.  It  is  not  quite  certain  at  what  age  this  took  place ; but  it  is 
generally  supposed  to  have  been  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  year.  Other 
writers  imagine  that  it  was  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  father? 

9 With  the  addition  sometimes  of  a nearer  family  name,  as  Publius 
Cornelius  Scipio  Naslca. 


CIVIL  AND  PRIVATE  LIFE. 


143 


first  commercial  treaty  with  the  Carthaginians  would 
seem  to  indicat^;  still  the  most  important  source  of 
income  was  agriculture,  and  the  produce  of  their 
landed  property  ( fructus)  the  principal  support  of  the 
Senators,  who  could  neither  occupy  themselves  with 
qucestus  as  traders,  nor  come  forward  as  farmers  of  the 
revenue,  or  contractors  for  the  performance  of  great 
public  works.  Landed  property  was,  however,  very 
unequally  divided*  and  in  the  latter  days  of  the  Re- 
public, the  number  of  free  yeomen  ivas  greatly  reduced 
by  the  Hocking  of  the  country  people  to  Rome,  where 
they  were  maintained  by  distributions  of 'corn  and 
bribes,  whilst  the  land  was  cultivated  for  the  most  part 
by  slaves.  310.  Commercial  dealings  also,  especially 
in  the  produce  of  the  provinces  ( mercatura ),  and  money 
speculations  ( negotiatio ) were  important  sources  of 
profit.  Exchanges  and  payments  were  effected  for  the 
most  part  by  the  aid  of  the  argentarii  or  mensarii, 
who  carried  on  a considerable  exchange  and  banking 
business  with  their  own  capital,  and  that  of  other  per- 
sons. Trade  on  a small  scale  ( mercatura , si  tenuis 
est,  Cic. : with  all  retail  dealing,  and),  mechanical  occu- 
pations, were  less  highly  esteemed  (Cic.  de  Off.  1,  42). 
With  the  stream  of  wealth  which  flowed  into  Rome 
from  all  quarters  in  the  latter  days  of  the  Republic, 
extravagance  increased  at  a fearful  rate,  and  displayed 
itself  in  the  pomp  and  luxury  of  domestic  life,  as  well 
as  in  the  enormous  public  distributions  of  money  and 
corn,  public  banquets,  and  shows. 

§ 4.  Coinage. 

311.  The  first  coined  money  (ces  signatum,  pecunia, 
numus)  was  of  bronze  (ces,  i.  e.  copper  and  tin ; not 
trass,  which  is  copper  and  zinc).  Servius  T ulliuk  was 
the  first  who  struck  gold  money.  The  superintendence 
of  the  coinage,  like  all  other  financial  arrangements, 
afterwards  devolved  on  the  Senate*  and  was  discharged 
by  the  triumviri  monetales  (iii  viri  AAAFF,  i.  e.  auro, 
argento,  <zeri  (■—  eeri)  flando,  jfei’iundo).  An  as  was 


144 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


at  first  equivalent  to  a libra  or  pound,  and  was  divided 
into  12  uncice,  2 of  which  = sextans,  3 = quadrans, 
4 = triens,  5 — quincunx,  6 = semis  or  semissis 
7 ==  septunx,  8 = bes,  9 = dodrans f 10  — dextans  or 
decunx,  11  = deunx.  Several  of  these,  however,  were 
only  imaginary  coins.  312.  The  larger  coins  were  the 
decussis  — 10  asses,  the  tripondius  ==  3 asses,  and  du- 
pondius  — 2 asses.  The  most  ancient  asses,  as  being 
equivalent  to  a libra,  were  asses  librales  ( ces  grave), 
but  at  a later  period  they  suffered  considerable  reduc- 
tion, and  gradually  sank  in  value,  until  they  became  at 
last  worth  only  uncia  of  copper.  313.  Silver  was  first 
coined  in  the  year  b.  c.  269.  The  silver  pieces  were 
the  denarius  ( bigams , quadrigatus,  from  its  impression 
being  a big  a or  quadriga),  which  at  first  contained  10 
asses,  but  subsequently  16,  except  with  reference  to  the 
military  pay,  which  was  reckoned  by  the  old  standard. 
The  quinarius  had  5 asses,  and  afterwards  8,  the  ses- 
tertius1  2 2\,  and  subsequently  4.  The  character  by 
which  it  was  expressed  was  IIS  or  HS.  Gold  denarii 
(aurei  = 25  silver  denarii,  in  the  time  of  the  Empire 
solidi)  were  first  struck  in  the  year  b.  c.  207.  314. 

Large  sums  were  generally  reckoned  in  asses  and  ses- 
tertia ; but  we  must  distinguish  between  the  sestertius 
and  sestertium,3  the  latter  being  a sum  of  1000  sestertii. 
If  the  sum  amounted  to  10  times  100,000  or  more,  the 
word  sestertium  was  employed  in  the  singular  number 
with  the  addition  of  a numeral  adverb,  the  word  “hun- 
dreds” being  understood,  e.  g.  Bononensi  colonics  sub- 
ventum  est  centies  sestertii  la? gitione  (Tac.  Ann.  12, 
58)  i.  e.  with  a present  of  10,000,000  sestertii.  See  a 
fuller  account  in  the  questions  on  the  section. 

1 Dodrans,  i.  e.  de-quadrans  = (12 — 3)  9 uncial:  deunx  = (12.— 1) 
11  uncicB.  Bes  = be-is  = binae  partes  asses,  i.  e.  § of  an  as,  or  8 undo:. 

2 Sestertius  = serais  tertius,  i.  e.  ‘ the  third,  a half -as!  implying  that 
the  first  and  second  were  each  a whole  one. 

3 Properly  the  genit.  plur.  for  mille  sestertium  (=  sestertiorum),  but 
latterly  declined  as  a substantive,  e.  g.  Una  sestertia. 


CIVIL  AND  PRIVATE  LIFE. 


145 


§ 5.  Measures. 

315.  In  long  measure  th epes  formed  the  unit.  This 
contained  4 palmai  (hand’s  breadths),  12  pollices 
(thumb’s  breadths),  16  digiti  (finger’s  breadths),  but 
was  also  divided  as  a whole  (as)  into  12  equal  parts 
(uncice).  Cubitus,  an  ell,  was  = pes : passus  = 5 
pedes:  125  passus  made  a stadium;  8 stadia  (1000 
passus ) a milliarium.  The  superficial  measure  was 
jugerum,  which  was  240  feet  in  length,  and  120  in 
breadth.  316.  The  measure  for  dry  and  liquid  goods 
was  culeus,  containing  20  amph6rce.  An  amphora  or 
quadrantal  contained  2 urnce,  8 congii,  48  sextarii. 
The  sextarius  contained  12  cyathi.  Urna  congius, 
and  cyathus  were  employed  for  liquid  commodities. 
Modius  (—  $ amphora  or  quadrantal)  was  used 
especially  in  corn  measure  ; 6 modii  made  a medimnus. 

§ 6.  Employments  of  Slaves. 4 

317.  In  the  later  times  of  the  Republic  the  number 
of  slaves  was  very  great,  both  in  the  houses  of  the  rich, 
and  on  their  country  estates  (latifundia)  which  were 
entirely  cultivated  by  bondsmen.  They  were  divided 
into  the  familia.  rustica,  who  laboured  on  the  farm,  and 
urbana,  who  waited  on  their  master  in  the  city,  and 
attended  him  into  the  country  for  the  same  purpose. 
They  were  either  purchased,  or  vernce,  the  offspring  of 
contubernium  between  slaves  in  the  house  of  the  mas- 
ter, and  were  divided  into  decuria}.  They  were  named 
after  their  employments.  318.  In  the  familia  urbana, 
the  most  important  offices  were  those  of  the  dispensa- 
tores,  stewards  and  accountants ; cellarii  or  promi, 
superintendents  of  all  the  penaria  and  vinaria ; atri- 
enses,5 * 7  cubicularii,  ostiarii  or  janitores,  managers  of 

4 The  social  condition  of  the  slaves  has  been  already  described ; we 
are  here  speaking  merely  of  their  distribution  and  employments. 

5 The  atrienses  of  course  superintended  the  atrium,  with  the  imagines 
and  supellex,  the  cubicularii,  the  sitting  and  sleeping  apartments,  the 

janitores  and  ostiarii  were  the  porters.  The  Iccticarii  were  preceded 
by  anteambulones  to  clear  the  way. 

7 


146 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


particular  parts  of  the  house  ; lecticarii,  litter-bearers  ; 
nomenclatores,  persons  whose  business  it  was,  in  the 
time  of  the  Republic,  to  acquaint  candidates  (in  pren- 
sando)  with  the  names  of  the  citizens  (that  they  might 
salute  them  properly;  they  also  made  the  guests  ac- 
quainted with  the  names  and  merits  of  the  dishes  that 
were  served) ; pediss8qiti,  running  footmen  ; tabellarii, 
letter-carriers ; besides  the  table  slaves,  such  as  coqni, 
pistores,  procgustcitores,  pincernce  (cup-bearers),  tricli- 
niarii,  a cyatho  vel  potione ; and  those  employed  at  the 
toilet  and  in  attendance  on  the  master’s  person,  such 
as  vestiarii,  ah  ornamentis,  tonsores,  balneatores,  medici, 
chirurgi ,°  servi  literati,  such  as  librarii  or  scribce, 
transcribers ; notarii,  short-hand  writers ; anagnostce 
or  lector es,  readers ; ab  epistQlis  (private  secretary),  a 
bibliotheca ; musical  slaves,  such  as  symphoniarii,  &c. 
In  the  familia  rustica,  the  most  important  were  the 
procuratores,  stewards  ; villici,  bailiffs  ; aratores,  veji- 
atores,  bubulci ; together  with  inspectors  of  gardens 
and  gardeners,  topiarii ,6 7  vinitores,  olitores,8  &c. 

§ 7.  Employments — Games. 

319.  The  rich  and  distinguished  Romans  received 
morning  visits  from  their  friends  and  clients.  About 
the  third  hour  business  commenced  in  the  Forum,  the 
courts  of  law,  and  the  Senate  (exercet  raucos  tertia  cau- 
sidicos,  Mart.).  After  the  conclusion,  they  passed  the 
time  partly  at  meals,  and  partly  in  walking  and  bodily 
exercises,  which  were  shared  by  elderly  men  and  per- 

6 The  art  of  medicine  was  not  known  at  Rome  until  a late  period, 
and  was  practised  as  a profession  almost  exclusively  by  foreigners. 

7 Topia  n.  pi.  (sc.  opera)  or  topiaria,  (sc.  ars : from  rfcos,  place)  de- 
note ornamental  gardening,  e.  g.  the  training  of  ivy,  acanthus,  &c.,  the 
attending  to  arbours  and  covered  walks,  and  the  cutting  of  trees  (often 
into  fanciful  shapes). 

8 Add  the  m.agislri  opcrum,  or  overseers ; the  ergastularius  who  at- 
tended to  the  slaves  in  the  ergasiulum;  scriniarii,  capsarii,  and  a great 
many  more.  The  servi  ordinarii  were  those  appointed  to  regular  offices, 
with  vicarii  under  them  ; the  vulgares  were  such  as  had  no  definite 
office,  or,  perhaps,  all  who  pursued  some  handicraft,  art,  or  scientific 
occupation.  Becker. 


CIVIL  AND  PRIVATE  LIFE. 


147 


sons  of  distinction.  A favourite  game  was  a sort  of 
tennis,  played  either  with  the  pila,  a small  ball,  or  the 
follis,  which  was  large  but  very  light.  They  had  also 
various  games  of  chance  that  were  played  on  boards, 
e.  g.  aha,,  ( dice ; played  with)  tali,  ( 4-sided  dice,  the 
two  other  surfaces  being  rounded;  or  with)  tesserae, 
(6-sided  dice,  marked  as  with  us.  320.  The  tali  were 
marked  1,  6 (opposite) ; 3,  4 (also,  of  course,  opposite). 
The  best  throw  was)  venus,  (when  the  4 dice  (for  4 
were  used,  thrown  from  a fritillus,  dice-box  of  box, 
horn,  or  ivory : also  pyrgus,  turricula,  or  phimus ) all 
presented  different  numbers : the  worst  was)  canis, 
(when  all  presented  the  canis  or  ace ; six  was  senio. 
With  the  tesserae  the  number  of  pips  usually  deter- 
mined the  victory.  The  dice-board  was  alveus,  alveO- 
lus , or  abacus.  The  game  with  tesserae  was  always 
for  money).  Ludus  calculorum  (or  latrunculorum,  was 
nearly  our  chess,  (the  men,  calculi,  latrunculi,  milites, 
&c.)  mostly  of  glass.)  Ludus  duodScim  scriptorum 
(was  more  nearly  backgammon,  played  with  men 
moving  on  lines,  scripta).  321.  Before  supper  (coend), 
usually  about  the  eighth  hour,  it  was  their  practice  to 
take  a bath. — The  carriage  universally  employed  for 
journeys  was  the  lectica,  a sort  of  litter,  palanquin,  or 
sedan,  borne  by  slaves  (lecticarii) . It  does  not  seem 
to  have  been  known  in  the  days  of  Plautus  ; but  was 
very  common  in  Cicero’s  time,  and  at  a later  period 
was  used  in  the  city,  as  well  as  for  journeys  into  the 
country.  Carriages  were  seldom  seen  in  town.  On 
certain  occasions  women  were  allowed  to  use  them 
(Liv.  5,  21) ; but  this  privilege  was  restricted  about 
the  time  of  the  second  Punic  war,  by  the  Oppian  law, 
which  was  afterwards  repealed.  322.  For  journeys, 
a three- wheeled  carriage  was  employed,  such  as  the 
cisium,  essSdum,  carpentum  (a  covered  carriage  for  the 
city),  or  a four-wheeled  one,  like  the  rlieda,  a heavier 
travelling  coach.  The  beasts  of  draught,  which  were 
fastened  to  a yoke  attached  to  the  pole,  were  either 
horses  or  mules.  On  a journey  travellers  generally 
enjoyed  the  hospitality  of  friends  and  connexions, 


148 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES'. 


whilst  ambassadors  ( legati ) were  entertained  at  the 
expense  of  the  state  (the  burden  therefore  of  their  sup- 
port fell,  in  later  times,  on  the  provincials.  A legatio 
libera  was  an  abuse,  giving  to  a Roman  noble,  who 
wished  to  travel,  the  privileges  and  pecuniary  advan- 
tages of  an  ambassador,  without  his  duties) : the  ac- 
commodations to  be  found  at  inns  (cauponce ; tabernce 
deversoriee)  seem  in  consequence  to  have  been  very 
indifferent. 


Buildings  and  Baths. 

323.  After  the  second  Punic  war,  the  general  taste 
for  display,  which  had  been  steadily  increasing,  began 
to  show  itself  in  the  arrangements  of  their  houses,  and 
towards  the  end  of  the  Republic,  had  reached  an  enor- 
mous height.  The  houses  in  the  city,  and  on  their 
estates,  were  built  in  a style  of  great  elegance,  and 
contained  a number  of  handsome  rooms,  ornamented 
with  noble  pillars  of  marble,  either  white  like  the 
Parian,  Pentelic,  and  Plymettian ; or  variegated  like 
that  of  Numidia,  Phrygia,  and  Laconia;  pictures,  sta- 
tues, expensive  carpets,  and  exquisite  furniture,  such 
as  tables  of  costly  wood  {citrus),  vessels  of  silver,  or 
Corinthian  brass,  vases,  candelabra,  &c.  The  villas 
had  their  baths,  extensive  fish-ponds  {piscines),  and 
gardens  laid  out  with  great  taste  and  skill.  324.  Of 
the  essential  parts  belonging  to  a Roman  house,9  we 
may  mention  the  vestibulum,  a court  enclosed  by  the 
principal  building,  and  the  two  wings  which  abutted 
on  the  road  or  street ; ostium  or  janua,  the  door  or 
entrance  in  the  middle  of  the  house,  with  its  limen 
inferum  and  superum ; the  postes,  fores  and  valves , 
which  were  closed  by  means  of  a bar  {sera,  repagu- 
lum,  obex.)  The  gate  was  guarded  by  a slave  termed 
janitor  or  ostiarius.  Some  writers  suppose  the  atrium. 

9 There  is  a great  difference  of  opinion  respecting  the  arrangement 
of  Roman  houses.  The  small  buildings  which  have  been  disinterred  at 
Herculaneum  and  Pompeii,  cannot  safely  be  taken  as  specimens  of  the 
architecture  employed  in  the  large  mansions  at  Rome. 


CIVIL  AND  PRIVATE  LIFE. 


149 


to  have  been  the  same  as  the  cavum  asclium,  or  inner 
court ; but  it  was  probably  the  largest  covered  room 
in  the  house,  and  that  which  stood  in  front  nearest  to 
the  entrance.  325.  In  it  were  placed  the  lectus  genia- 
lis,  the  imagines,  and  altar  of  the  Penates,  The  cavum 
cedium,  or  cavcedium  was  the  inner  court.  In  the 
middle  of  it  was  an  uncovered  space  ( impluvium ) sur- 
rounded by  a covered  colonnade.  In  the  centre  of  the 
impluvium  was  a cistern.  Peristylium : adjoining  the 
cavum  cedium , but  further  back,  was  another  (and 
larger)  open  space  surrounded  by  columns,  and  orna- 
mented with  shrubs  and  flowers.  The  other  apart- 
ments and  bed-rooms  were  termed  cubicula.  The 
triclinia  were  dining-rooms,  aeci,  larger  halls  ; exSdrce, 
reception-rooms,  which  were  uncovered,  according  to 
some  authorities,  like  the  exedrce  in  the  gymnasia,  that 
is,  semicircular  terminations  of  a portico,  furnished 
with  seats ; coenacula,  rooms  on  the  second  story. 
326.  The  floor  in  ancient  times  was  composed  of  clay 
beaten  hard,  but  at  an  early  period  this  was  exchanged 
for  a pavement  of  stone,  pavimentum  sectile,  consisting 
of  small  pieces  of  marble  of  various  colours,  or  of  terra 
cotta  ( opus  testaceum ),  arranged  in  squares  or  polygons. 
Mosaic  work  of  marble  or  glass  was  employed  ( opus 
or  emblema  tessellatum,  vermiculatum  ; opus  musivum. 
The  walls  were  ornamented  with  tablets  of  marble  or 
pictures.  Great  expense  and  skill  were  also  lavished 
on  the  ceiling  ( laquearia , lacunaria).  327.  The  open- 
ings made  for  light  in  the  walls  (fenestra;),  which  were 
closed,  when  necessary,  With  wooden  shutters^  were 
furnished  in  the  time  of  the  Emperors  with  plates  of 
transparent  stone  (lapis  specularis,  mica,  talc),  and 
glass.  Various  plans  were  adopted  for  warming  the 
apartments,  without  the  employment  of  what,  properly 
speaking,  might  be  denominated  stoves.  The  cubicula 
and  triclinia  for  winter  occupation  were  on  the  sunny 
side  of  the  house  ; pans  of  charcoal  were  also  used, 
and  latterly  small  closets  adjoining  the  apartments 
were  warmed  by  means  of  hypocausta,  and  discharged 
their  heat  through  an  opening  into  the  sitting  rooms. 


150 


MANUAL  OP  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


For  lighting  they  used  in  ancient  times  torches  of  tal- 
low or  wax  ( candelce  sebaceae  and  cereae).  At  a later 
period  lamps  ( lucernce ) were  more  generally  used,  of 
which  they  had  several  patterns  both  in  terra  cotta  and 
bronze.  They  were  either  suspended  by  chains  from 
the  ceilling,  or  supported  on  candelabra.  328.  Our 
knowledge  of  their  baths  is  derived  from  the  remains 
of  those  built  by  Titus,  Caracalla,  and  Diocletian  at 
Rome,  and  from  the  baths  discovered  at  Pompeii.  The 
principal  parts  of  the  thermae  were  the  apodyterium,  or 
undressing  room  ; frigid, arium,  the  cold  bath  ; tepida,- 
rium , a tepid  bath,  or  perhaps  only  a heated  chamber  ; 
caldarium,  the  warm  bath,  which  was  warmed  by  a 
heating  apparatus  ( hypocausta ).  (A  Roman  was  at- 
tended to  the  bath  by  a slave,  who  carried  oil,  with 
which  the  person  was  anointed  both  before  and  after 
bathing ; strigiles,  or  scrapers,  for  removing  the  oil 
and  all  impurities  of  the  skin  ; and  lintea,  towels.) 

§ 9.  Dress. 

329.  Their  dress  consisted  of  a (woollen)  tunica,  or 
body-coat  (girded  under  the  breast) : it  was  scanty 
and  generally  without  sleeves,  and  reached  nearly  to 
the  knees.  A long  tunic  with  sleeves  was  considered 
a sign  of  vanity  and  effeminacy  (Cic.  Orat.  in  Cat.  2, 
10.).  The  Senators  wore  a tunica  laticlavia,  with  a 
broad  (purple)  stripe,  the  Knights  one  with  a narrow 
stripe  termed  tunica  angusticlavia.  On  the  occasion 
of  triumphs,  a tunica  palmata  was  worn  (so  called 
from  the  palm-leaves  that  were  worked  upon  it,  as 
emblems  of  victory.)  Under  the  tunic  they  generally 
wore  a dress  called  tunica  interior  ( subucula  especially 
in  male  attire)  and  above  it  the  toga,  or  national  dress 
of  the  Roman  citizen  in  time  of  peace , a gown  or 
mantle  thrown  round  the  body  so  as  to  cover  the  left 
arm,  and  leave  the  right  partly  exposed,  a sinus,  or 
fold,  being  formed  on  the  breast  on  the  side  of  the 
covered  arm.  The  toga  was  white,  alba,  pura ; that 
of  candidates,  Candida.  Accused  persons  wore  a toga 


CIVIL  AND  PRIVATE  LIFE. 


1 5 i 


* dida,  Virgins  and  boys  were  dressed  in  a toga 
yuetexta  (of  Etruscan  origin,  Liv.  1,  8.),  with  a purple 
bottler  ( limbus ) like  that  worn  by  the  superior  magis- 
trates. In  triumphs  the  victorious  general  wore  a toga 
picta  (an  Etruscan  purple  robe,  embroidered  with 
gold,  over  a tunica  palmata).  The  usual  military  cloak 
was  termed  sagum;  the  foul- weather  or  travelling 
mantle,  pccnula.  (It  was  closed,  having  only  a hole  for 
the  neck ; hence  it  was  drawn  on,  and  covered  the 
arms,  as  well  as  the  body.)  330.  In  the  time  of  the 
Emperors  many  persons,  instead  of  a toga,  wore  a 
cloak  called  lacerna,  which  was  sometimes  provided 
with  a cucullus  or  hood.  The  coverings  of  their  feet 
were  solece,  sandals  fastened  with  thongs,  and  gene- 
rally used  in  the  house,  and  calcei,  shoes  (covering  the 
whole  foot,  or  the  greater  part  of  it),  worn  abroad  with 
the  toga , The  head  was  bare,  except  in  bad  weather, 
or  on  a journey.  Rings  were  universally  worn  as  an 
ornament)  those  of  the  Senators  and  Knights  were 
of  gold.  " Latterly  they  were  often  set  with  stones 
( gemmce ),  in  which  figures  were  engraved.  The  an- 
cient Romans  allowed  the  hair  and  beard  to  grow  ; 
but  about  the  year  b.  c.  300,  the  Greek  fashion  was  in- 
troduced of  trimming  the  beard,1  and  anointing,  frizzing, 
and  arranging  the  hair.  331.  To  female  attire  be- 
longed the  stola, ja  long  tunica  with  sleeves,  over  which 
was  worn  the  palla,,  a garment  corresponding  to  the 
toga  of  the  other  sex. — Latterly  enormous  sums  were 
expended  on  dress ; painting,  and  all  sorts  of  artificial 
embellishments  were  generally  employed.-^The  most 
ancient  dresses  were  of  woollen  cloth}  linen  not  having 
been  generally  introduced  until  the  later  times  of  the 
Republic  (carhdsus,  byssus,  sindon).  In  the  days  of 
the  Empire  the  wealthier  citizens  also  wore  robes 
composed,  either  half  or  entirely,  of  silk  ( sericac , hom- 
bycince  vestes.) 


1 This  was  done  either  at  home  by  slaves,  or  in  the  tonstrintz,  where 
also  the  hair  was  cut  and  the  nails  pared  and  cleaned. 


152 


MANUAL  OP  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


§ 10.  Meals. 

332.  Their  meals  also  were  at  first  exceedingly 
simple,2  but  latterly,  especially  after  the  wars  in  Asia, 
luxury  in  this  respect  became  general ; and  the  govern- 
ment strove  ineffectually  to  restrain,  by  a succession  of 
sumptuary  laws,  the  costliness  of  their  banquets,  for 
which  the  whole  known  world  was  rifled  of  its  most 
exquisite  productions.  Wine,  whether  Italian,3  as 
Massic,  Falernian,  Csecuban,  or  Greek,  as  Chian  and 
Lesbian,  was  but  rarely  drunk  in  ancient  times ; — 
afterwards,  it  came  into  general  use ; but  was  usually 
mingled  with  water  and  (sometimes)  cooled  with  snow. 
Another  favourite  drink  was  mulsum  (olv6y.th),  a sort 
of  mead  or  honey-wine.  333.  Their  first  meal  was 
the  jentaculurrh.  The prandium  was  a light  repast  eaten 
about  noon  : the  coena  was  introduced,  in  summer 
about  the  ninth  hour ; in  winter,  somewhat  earlier.  It 
consisted  of  the  first  course  ( gustatio  or  promulsis ) ; 
the  principal  course  ( caput  coence,  consisting  of  several 
ferculoi)  ; and  the  desert  ( 'menses  secundce,  bellaria). 
They  reclined,  during  their  meals,  on  couches  ( lecti ), 
generally  three  ( [summits , medius,  imus)  at  each  table. 
The  couches  were  furnished  with  cushions  {tori),  and 
on  festive  occasions,  frequently  covered  with  beautiful 
tapestry  {stragulce  vestes).  Each  couch  accommodated 
three  guests'.  Drinking  bouts  {commissationes)  were 
often  protracted  to  a ' late  hour,  and  latterly  were  man- 
aged on  the  Grecian  plan.  A president  was  chosen, 
named  magister  bibendi  or  rex  convivii.  The  guests 
were  crowned  with  flowers  and  leaves  of  myrtle. 
During  the  feast  they  were  entertained  with  music  and 

2 .A  very  common  food  in  ancient  times  seems  to  have  been  puls,  a 
sort  of  pudding  or  doughT)>  , 

3 All  the  best  Italian  wines  were  Campanian.  The  C&cubum,  grown 
near  Amy  Kim,  held  the  first  rank,  till  Augustus  brought  the  Sctinian  into 
fashion.  The  Falernian  stood  nextj  the  best  quality  \Fuustianum)  being 
grown  Gear  SinuessaJ  'Cphe  Massic)  was  one  that  contested  the  third 
place  with  the  AU>anum  and  Surrentinmn,  ns  well  as  with  the  Calenum 
and  Fordanwn The  middling  wines  were  Trifolinum  Signinum,  No- 
mentanumg&c c. ; the  Vaticanum  and  veientanum  ( rubellum , from  its 
colour)  amongst  the  worst.. 


CIVIL  AND  PRIVATE  LIFE. 


153 


dancing,  or,  in  the  more  refined  circles,  with  readings 
by  professional  declaimers  ( acroama ). 

§11.  Funerals. 

334.  The  Romans,  like  most  other  nations,  had 
their  peculiar  ceremonies  and  usages  in  cases  of  death 
and  at  burials.  Their  anxiety  for  the  performance  of 
the  funeral  rites ; arose  from  their  belief  in  a future 
state,;  and  the  duty  was  consequently  considered  one 
which  the  dead  had  a right  to  require  at  the  hands  of 
the  living  ( justa  facere).  The  nearest  relations  closed 
the  eyes  of  the  deceased,  and  called  out  his  name. 
The  preparations  for  the  funeral  were  conducted  by 
the  libitinarii .)  The  corpse  was  first  washed  and 
anointed,  then  clothed  in  its  shroud  (a  toga ; in  the 
case  of  magistrates,  the  prcetexta),  and  exposed  to  pub- 
lic view.  In  front  of  the  house  was  placed  a branch 
of  cypress.  To  the  more  solemn  funerals,  especially 
if  games  formed  a part  of  the  celebration,  the  people 
were  invited  by  a prceco.  The  procession  was  opened 
by  musicians  and  mourning  women  ( prceficce ),  who 
sang  a dirge  to  the  accompaniment  of  flutes ; and  was 
sometimes  attended  by  mimes,  one  of  whom  repre- 
sented the  deceased.  335.  The  insignia  of  the  dead 
were  borne  in  front  of  the  body,  together  with  his 
imagines,  which  were  preceded  by  persons  dressed  like 
the  characters  represented  by  them.  The  corpse  was 
borne  on  a lectlcap  the  procession  being  closed  by  per- 
sons dressed  in  mourning.  At  the  forum  a halt  was 
made,  and  the  nearest  relation,  ascending  the  rostrum, 
delivered  a laudatio\  According  to  Livy  5,  50,  even 
women,  after  the  Gallic  war,  obtained  the  right  of  a 
laudatio,  although  the  privilege  seems  to  have  been 
rarely  claimed,  and  not  until  a late  period  of  the  Re- 
public. As  a general  rule,  no  corpse  could  be  interred 
within  the  city.  Burying  ( sepelire , humare),  as  well  as 
burning  (premare),  were  practised.  Persons  of  conse- 

4 Their  name  was  derived  from  the  temple  of  Venus  li'oitlna,  where 
they  kept  all  the  articles  required  at  funerals. 

7* 


154 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIOUITIES. 


quence  had  magnificent  private  burial-places  ( sepulcra ) 
on  their  estates,  or  by  the  sides  of  the  principal  high- 
ways. Under  the  Emperors,  it  was  customary  to  build 
large  mausolea,  for  instance,  that  raised  by  Augustus, 
and  the  moles  Hadriani,  on  the  banks  of  the  Tiber. 
336.  For  burning  the  dead,  a funeral  pile  ( pyra , rogus) 
was  erected ; on  which  they  laid  the  corpse  in  its 
clothes,  with  incense  and  other  sweet-smelling  spices. 
The  burnt  bones  and  ashes  were  collected  (ossa  legere) 
in  urns,  and  placed  in  a monument.  Funerals  were 
sometimes  accompanied  with  burial  feasts;  games,  and 
combats  of  gladiators.  After  the  funeral  the  novendiale 
sacrificium  took  place.  Cemeteries  belonged  to  the 
res  religiosce,  and  were  under  the  superintendence  of 
the  Pontifex  maximus.  The  violation  of  them  was 
severely  punished.  Deification  ( apotheosis ) was  de- 
creed (after  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar ) to  the  Emperors, 
by  a resolution  of  the  Senate.  The  person  deified  was 
dignified  with  the  title  of  divus,  and  the  honour  com- 
pleted by  the  erection  of  temples,  the  establishment  of 
orders  of  priesthood,  and  solemnities. 


HISTORY 


OF 

ROMAN  LITERATURE. 


INTRODUCTION. 

§ 1.  Development  of  Roman  Literature. 

337.  Greece  may  be  viewed  in  some  sort  as  the 
inventress  of  the  sciences ; for  the  elements  borrowed 
from  foreign  nations,  insignificant  enough  in  themselves, 
were  made  her  own  by  the  labour  which  she  expended 
in  bringing  them  to  perfection.  Under  her  fostering 
care  the  sciences  ripened  into  maturity,  attained  by 
degrees  their  highest  elevation,  and  then  sank  back, 
slowly  and  by  almost  imperceptible  steps,  into  their 
original  condition.  But  with  the  Romans  it  was  far 
otherwise.  They  were  a practical  people,  possessing 
considerable  strength  and  firmness  of  character,  but  by 
no  means  pre-eminently  distinguished  by  talent  for  pro- 
found scientific  investigation,  or  by  an  excitable  imagi- 
nation. For  a long  time  their  attention  was  directed 
to  objects  very  different  from  the  acquisition  of  scien- 
tific knowledge ; and  we  find,  in  consequence,  the 
slight  vestiges  of  poetical  and  historic  interest  overlaid 
and  well-nigh  obliterated  by  a mass  of  political  and 
military  efforts.  338.  It  was  at  an  advanced  period  of 
their  history,  when  the  literature  of  Greece  had  already 
begun  to  decline,  that  the  Romans  first  began  to  recog- 
nize Grecian  influence  in  the  development  of  their  taste 


15G 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


for  scientific  instruction.  Notwithstanding  their  de- 
cided national  character,  their  respect  for  the  practices 
of  their  ancestors,  and  the  slight  esteem  with  which 
they  regarded  Greece  as  a nation,  the  better  portion  of 
the  people  became  willing  pupils,  and  pressed  eagerly 
forward  on  the  road  which  had  been  already  opened 
and  levelled  by  the  Greeks.  A certain  degree  of  ex- 
cellence was  in  consequence  speedily  attained,  and  its 
effects  manifested  in  their  successful  cultivation  of  the 
arts,  and  the  zeal  with  which  they  devoted  themselves 
to  grammatical,  historical,  and  critical  investigation : 
but  on  the  other  hand,  the  spirit  of  scientific  research 
never  became  either  so  popular  or  so  original  and  inde- 
pendent, as  among  the  Greeks,  simply  contenting  itself 
with  walking  in  their  footsteps,  without  striking  out 
any  essentially  new  forms.  339.  In  some  directions 
their  progress  was  unsatisfactory,  and  even  in  their 
best  writers  we  often  miss  the  freshness  and  originality, 
by  which  the  Greeks  were  always  distinguished.  Only 
a few  branches,  those,  for  instance,  which  like  juris- 
prudence and  oratory  were  of  a practical  character,  or 
which  tended,  like  history,  to  the  gratification  of  their 
national  feeling,  developed  themselves  in  a more  inde- 
pendent form.  The  leading  features  of  the  Roman 
nationality  are,  respect  for  the  moral  and  religious 
severity  of  their  forefathers,  intelligence  and  practical 
wisdom,  the  idea  of  a commonwealth,  and  the  proud 
consciousness  of  universal  sovereignty  and  the  suprem- 
acy of  Rome ; characteristics  of  which  their  literature 
also  bears  the  impress. 

§ 2.  The  Latin  Language. 

340.  The  Latin  language  must  be  considered  as  a 
sister  tongue  of  the  Greek,  varied  by  its  connexion 
with  other  Italian  dialects,  such  as  the  Oscian.  At 
first  it  was  rough  and  subject  to  many  alterations ; but 
after  a time  it  began  to  feel  the  influence  of  the  Grecian 
language,  not  only  as  it  was  spoken  in  the  neighbour- 
ing colonies  of  Magna  Grsecia,  but  as  it  was  imported 


HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 


157 


in  greater  purity  from  the  mother  country  itself,  and 
was  moulded  into  form  by  the  labours,  first  of  poets 
and  orators,  and  subsequently  of  historians  and  gram- 
marians. 341.  Towards  the  end  of  the  Republic,  and 
.especially  at  the  commencement  of  the  Imperial  era, 
it  attained  its  highest  degree  of  purity.  At  that  period 
it  had  spread  itself  over  the  whole  of  Italy,  was  gradu- 
ally planted  in  the  provinces,  and  mingling  with  the 
dialects  already  spoken,  laid  the  foundation  of  fresh 
languages,  such  as  the  Italian,  French,  Spanish,  Portu- 
guese, English,  Wallachian,  Romaic,  &c. 


History  of  Roman  Literature. 

§ 3.  First  period — -from  the  Building  of  Rome  to  the 
year  b.  c.  240. 

342.  Under  this  head  we  must  consider,  not  so 
much  literature  strictly  so  called,  as  its  earliest  rude 
elements,  which  prepared  the  way  for  the  reception  of 
foreign  literature.  These  first  germs  are  discoverable 
in  historical  and  statistical  outlines,  and  in  a few  vesti- 
ges of  poetry,  as  well  as  in  their  acquaintance  with  the 
Greek  alphabet.  To  their  poetry  belong  the  hymns  of 
the  Salian  priests  ( axamenta ),  which  were  retained 
until  a very  late  period,  but  could  only  be  understood 
by  the  assistance  of  a glossary ; the  lays  of  the  Am- 
barvalian  brethren,  the  old  convivial  songs,  mentioned 
by  Cicero,  Tusc.  l,2  r and  the  versus  Fescennini,  or 
verses  sung  alternately  at  the  rural  merry-makings,  and 
often  full  of  biting  satire  (of  Etruscan  origin) ; besides 
several  rough  productions  of  the  dramatic  art.  The 
metre  of  these  songs  was  the  Saturnian.  343.  To  the 
germs  of  their  prose  literature  belong  the  Annales 
Maximi,  or  short  annual  catalogue  of  remarkable  pub- 
lic events,  prepared  by  the  Pontifex  maximus.  This 
practice  continued  for  a long  time ; but  most  of  the 
older  records  were  lost  at  the  Gallic  invasion.  We 


158 


MANUAL  OF  IiOMAN  ANTIQUITIES 


find  also  the  Commentarii  Pontificum,  or  documents 
prescribing  the  religious  ceremonies  ; the  Fasti  or  libri 
rnagistratuum,  accounts  of  magisterial  personages,  e.  g. 
the  libri  lintei,  discovered,  according  to  Livy,  in  the 
temple  of  Juno  Moneta : the  Laudationes,  or  funeral 
orations,  which  were  extremely  ancient ; and  lastly, 
the  written  laws,  comprehending  the  Leges  Regies,  as 
well  as  those  of  the  Twelve  Tables.  Fragments  of 
ftoth  these  codes  are  still  extant. 

§ 1.  Second  period — -from  the  year  b.  c.  240,  to  the  time 
of  Cicero. 

344.  Whilst  the  Roman  commonwealth  advanced 
not  only  in  power  and  riches,  but  in  the  order  and  sta- 
bility of  its  political  institutions,  the  increasing  inter- 
course with  Greece,  and  especially  the  residence  of 
learned  Greeks  in  their  city,1  gradually  opened  the  eyes 
of  individuals  to  the  importance  of  science  even  in 
reference  to  practical  life.  Statesmen,  like  the  younger 
Scipio  and  Laelius,  conversed  familiarly  with  Greek 
men  of  letters  (Polybius,  Pajsaitius)  ; and  many  per- 
sons of  distinction  began,  if  not  to  study,  at  least  to 
appreciate  and  protect  the  sciences.  The  Greeks,  it  is 
true,  had  many  facilities  unknown  to  the  grave  and 
business-like  Romans  ; but  notwithstanding  this  disad- 
vantage, Grecian  literature  continued  to  make  its  way ; 
and  even  Cato,  in  extreme  old  age,  acquired  the  lan- 
guage. 345.  Men  now  began  to  cultivate  oratory,2 
the  most  comprehensive  of  all  sciences  in  a free  state, 
and  that  which  prepares  the  way  for  the  most  impor- 
tant and  honourable  employments.  At  first  this  was 

1 Among  these  we  may  especially  notice  the  ambassadors,  sent  by  the 
Athenians  to  Rome  in  the  year  n.  c.  155,  viz.  Diogenes  the  Stoic,  Crito- 
laus  the  Peripatetic,  and  Carneades  the  Academic  ; three  of  the  most  re- 
nowned philosophers  of  that  period.  They  were  charged  with  a message 
from  their  government,  and  were  listened  to  with  curiosity,  but  were  com- 
pelled to  quit  the  city  at  the  instigation  of  Cato. 

2 The  most  celebrated  orators  were,  Cato  Censorius,  Ser.  Sulpicius 
Galba,  C.  Papirius  Carbo,  the  Gracchi,  particularly  the  Younger,  M.  All 
tonius,  and  L.  Licinius  Crassus. 


HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 


159 


done  without  any  theoretic  system ; but  at  a later 
period,  the  study  was  carried  on  under  the  direction 
of  Greek  rhetoricians,  who  were  looked  on  with  an 
evil  eye  at  first,  and  frequently  banished  from  Rome 
(e.  g.  in  the  year  e.  c.  1G1).  The  effect  of  this  study# 
pervaded  the  whole  circle  of  literature,  in  which  we 
discover  a rhetorical  tone,  which  it  is  impossible  to 
mistake.  There  were  also  at  Rome  professors  of  phi- 
losophy,3 and  of  grammatical  studies,  such  as  language, 
literary  history,  the  art  of  criticism,  and  its  auxiliaries.4 

§ 5.  The  subject  continued. 

346.  The  works  which  this  period  produced,  were 
chiefly  of  a poetical  (viz.  dramatic  and  epic)  or  histori- 
cal character.  The  Romans  possessed  a sort  of  dra- 
matic poetry  of  Italian  origin,  which  prepared  the  way 
for  the  introduction  of  the  Grecian  drama.  To  this 
class  belong  the  Fescennine  verses  already  mentioned, 
the  Mimes,  the  ludi  Osci,  and  the  f abides  Atellance,5  a 
popular  drama  of  a comic  character  performed  by  free 
youths.  The  last  named  description  of  verses  is  men- 
tioned in  the  time  of  the  first  Emperors,  but  not  a frag- 
ment of  Atellan  verse  has  reached  our  days.  We  read 
also  of  Saturce  or  improvised  farces,  concerning  which 
very  little  is  known.  A more  important  acquisition 
to  literature  was  the  Grecian  drama  (tragedies  and 
comedies  written  on  the  model  of  the  newer  Attic 
comedy),  the  introduction  of  which  was  closely  con- 
nected at  Rome  with  religious  ceremonies  and  games. 
347.  Although  at  a later  period  dramatic  poetry  strove 
hard  to  awaken  the  national  interests,  by  the  adoption 
of  Roman  subjects,6  it  never  took  a very  firm  root  in 
the  affections  of  the  people,  and  latterly  disappeared  in 
a great  measure,  or  was  driven  from  the  field  by  exhi- 

3 Among  the  philosophers  may  be  classed  Seipio  the  Younger,  Laelius 
Sapiens,  P.  Rutilius  Rufus,  and  others. 

4 Crates  Mallotes,  who  came  to  Rome  in  the  year  b.  c.  168,  was  the 

first  who  created  a taste  for  these  studies. 

6 Q.  Novius  is  mentioned  as  a writer  of  Atellan  Dramas. 

6 Fabulce  preetextata  and  togatat  in  opposition  to  palliates. 


160 


MANUAL  OP  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


bitions  of  gladiators,  and  combats  of  wild  beasts,  and 
such  like  amusements.  Epic  poetry  also  began  to 
choose  national  subjects,  employing  at  first  the  Satur- 
nian, and  subsequently  the  Hexameter  measure.  On 
the  other  hand,  satire  developed  itself  after  a more  in- 
dependent fashion ; whilst  history,  taking  for  its  basis 
the  annual  notices  of  events,  made  some  advances  at 
this  period,  confining  itself,  however,  to  the  annalist 
form,  without  even  aiming  at  perfection  of  style. 

§ 6.  Poets. 

348.  Limits  Andronicus,  an  emancipated  slave  of 
Grecian  descent,  who  first  introduced  dramatic  repre- 
sentations in  the  year,  is.  c.  240 ; wrote  tragedies  and 
comedies,  and  is  said  to  have  translated  the  Odyssey 
into  Saturnian  verse. 

Cn.  Ncevius,  died  b.  c.  204.  He  wrote  tragedies 
and  comedies,  with  some  bitter  satires  after  the  model 
of  the  older  Attic  comedy,  for  which  he  was  thrown 
into  prison.  He  composed  also  a poem  of  the  first 
Punic  war. 

Q.  Ennius,  b.  c.  239 — 169.  A Roman  citizen, 
highly  esteemed  by  the  elder  Scipio.  He  wrote  trage- 
dies, comedies,  annales,  a long  epic  poem  on  the  history 
of  Rome,  and  various  other  pieces,  principally  transla- 
tions. He  was  the  first  who  employed  the  Hexameter, 
instead  of  the  Saturnian  measure. 

Ccecilius  Statius,  died  b.  c.  168.  A comic  writer. 

M.  Pacuvius,  born  b.  c.  220.  A tragic  author. 

L.  Attins,  born  b.  c.  170,  is  said  to  have  chosen 
Roman  subjects  for  his  tragedies,  and  also  to  have 
written  Didascalica,  a work  on  the  history  of  dra- 
matic art. 

349.  M.  Attius  Plautus,  in  the  time  of  the  second 
Punic  war;  died  b.  c.  184.  Of  the  twenty-one  pieces 
pronounced  by  Varro  to  be  genuine,  we  possess  twenty, 
copied  freely  from  the  Greek  drama.  The  text  is  very 
corrupt,  and  ignorance  of  the  metre  has  caused  great 
confusion. 


HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 


161 


P.  Terentius  Afer,  born  about  b.  c.  194;  died  about 
b.  c.  159  ; an  emancipated  slave.  He  lived  on  friendly 
terms  with  Scipio  Africanus  Minor,  and  Lselius,  who, 
however,  were  considerably  his  juniors.  We  have  six 
of  his  comedies,  adaptations  of  Greek  pieces  written 
by  Menander  and  Apollodorus. 

L.  Afranius,  younger  than  Terence.  He  wrote 
Comcedice  togatce  (note  6 on  p.  159). 

C.  Lucilius,  b.  c.  148 — 103  ; a friend  of  Scipio  and 
Laelius.  He  wrote  satires,  which  were  highly  esteemed 
by  the  sAicient's.  After  his  time  nothing  of  this  sort, 
worthy  of  mention,  appears  to  have  been  written  until 
the  days  of  Horace.  ' 

§ 7.  Prose  writers. 

350.  The  Roman  prose  writers  are,  for  the  most 
part,  annalists.  At  a very  early  period,  the  interest  of 
the  Romans  was  awakened  by  legends  and  notices  of 
events,  which  were  collected  and  arranged  by  writers, 
who  were  generally  statesmen  ; whilst  the  poets  were 
private  individuals,  often  of  humble  origin,  and  almost 
universally  foreigners. 

Q.  Fabius  Pictor,  in  the  time  of  the  second  Punic 
war.  He  wrote  annals,  extending  from  the  building 
of  Rome  to  his  own  times. 

M.  Porcius  Cato  Censorius,  b.  c.  234 — 149.  A 
model  of  the  old  stern  conservative  national  character. 
His  works  were : Origines,  the  ancient  history  of 
Italy,  and  an  account  of  the  events  which  occurred  at 
Rome,  from  the  building  of  the  city  to  the  year  b.  c. 
151  : he  also  wrote  a Treatise  on  Agriculture,  the  most 
ancient  prose  work  which  we  possess,  although  in  a 
very  mutilated  condition,  besides  orations  and  other 
compositions. 

351.  As  annalists  we  may  also  mention  : — 

L.  Calpurnius  Piso  Frugi,  Consul  b.  c.  133. 

C.  Fannius,  son-in-law  of  Leelius  the  Wise. 

L.  Ccelius  Antipdter,  in  the  time  of  the  Gracchi. 
He  seems  to  have  employed  more  art  in  the  composi- 


162 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIOUITIES. 


tion  of  historical  works  than  had  previously  been  dis- 
played. 

These,  and  many  other  annalists  who  are  specially 
mentioned  by  Livy  and  Dionysius,  in  conjunction  with 
a few  jurists  (e.  g.  Sex.  AElius  Pcetus,  Consul  in  the 
year  b.  c.  198,  and  some  members  of  the  Mucian 
family),  compose  the  class  of  prose  writers  during  this 
period.  All,  however,  have  been  lost,  except  Cato’s 
Treatise  on  Agriculture  ; nor  do  we  possess  any  thing 
of  the  poets  beyond  fragments,  if  we  except  the  come- 
dies of  Plautus  and  Terence. 

§ 8.  Third  period. — From  the  time  of  Cicero  to  the 
death  of  Augustus. 

352.  This  period  is  the  golden  age  of  science 
Whilst  the  prejudices  of  the  majority  against  scientific 
research,  especially  at  its  first  introduction,  were  not 
yet  entirely  rooted  out,  and  men  still  ridiculed  the 
learned  pedantry  of  the  Greeks,  and  their  want  of 
practical  knowledge;  the  interest  felt  by  the  educated 
classes  in  Grecian  literature,  which  continued  to  exer- 
cise an  important  influence  over  the  works  of  Roman 
writers,  went  on  steadily  increasing.  Even  in  other 
parts  of  Italy,  a taste  for  the  sciences  became  moi’e 
generally  diffused,  although  all  the  most  efficient  literary 
efforts  were  concentrated  at  Rome.  353.  Learning 
became  more  and  more  a necessary  ingredient  in 
polished  life  ; and  many,  amidst  the  whirl  and  confu- 
sion attendant  on  the  social  and  civil  wars,  and  the 
decline  of  liberty,  endeavoured  to  find,  in  literary  occu- 
pation, solace  and  forgetfulness  of  their  present  misery. 
Education  was  promoted  by  the  establishment  of 
schools,  and  public  as  well  as  private  libraries.  In  the 
first  half  of  this  period  (the  Ciceronian),  prose  litera- 
ture particularly  flourished  ; and  in  the  last,  poetry, 
under  the  auspices  of  Augustus,  and  other  powerful 
patrons  of  science.7 

7 Such  as  Maecenas  and  Asinius  Pollio,  who  are  both  mentioned  as 
authors. 


HISTORY  OP  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 


163 


§ 9.  The  subject  continued. 

354.  During  this  period,  dramatic  poetry  partially 
disappeared  ;8  but  the  representation  of  Mimes  (which 
were  sketches  of  Roman  life,  garnished  with  number- 
less apophthegms)  still  continued.  Pantomimes  also 
came  into  fashion.  Epic  poetry,  especially,  flourished 
under  Augustus,  and  derived  its  subjects  partly  from 
contemporary  events  and  partly  from  Grecian  legends. 
The  didactic  epos  was  also  introduced,  borrowed  im- 
mediately from  the  Alexandrians.  355.  Lyric  poetry, 
although  it  never  intertwined  itself  with  the  daily 
occurrences  of  life  so  naturally  and  appropriately  as 
in  Greece,  was  presented,  nevertheless,  in  various 
forms,  such  as  odes  and  songs,  elegies  (i.  e.  poems, 
in  which  the  principal  element  is  a tranquil  or 
melancholy  feeling,  most  frequently  of  an  amorous 
character),  epistles,  and  satires  (i.  e.  poems  full  of  re- 
flections on  human  life,  and  the  pursuits  of  mankind), 
bucolic  poems  (delineations  of  pastoral  life),  fables,  and 
epigrams.  In  prose  literature,  history,  abandoning  its 
dry  annalistic  character,  gradually  assumed  a more 
complete  and  beautiful  form,  in  which  the  rhetorical 
element  is  especially  discernible.  Grammatical  and 
antiquarian  studies  also  flourished  through  the  interest 
which  every  Roman  felt  in  the  history  of  by-gone 
days,  and  the  institutions  of  his  ancestors.  356.  Elo- 
quence was  at  its  height  in  the  days  of  Cicero  ; but 
with  the  decline  of  freedom  it  lost  its  political  import- 
ance, and  consequently  its  peculiar  character ; but  still 
continued,  especially  in  the  form  of  legal  pleadings,  de- 
clamations, and  rhetorical  displays,  to  attract  consi- 
derable notice.  Its  theory  was  studied  and  discussed 
in  treatises  : but,  in  the  mean  time,  it  began  gradually 
to  lose  its  strength,  nature,  and  simplicity.  From  the 
time  of  Cicero,  philosophical  subjects  began  to  be  dis- 
cussed in  works  expressly  composed  for  that  purpose, 

8 Mention,  however,  is  made  in  the  Augustine  age,  of  the  Thyeste,  as 
a celebrated  tragedy  of  L.  Varius,  who  distinguished  himself  also  as  an 
epic  poet. 


164 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


but  without  any  independent  speculations,  or  profouu 
inquiries  into  the  system  of  Greek  philosophy ; the 
attention  of  the  writers  of  that  class  being  chiefly 
directed  to  political  subjects  and  oratory.  The  wri- 
tings of  the  Stoic,  Epicurean,  and  Academic  philoso- 
phy were  especially  read.  357.  Few  of  the  other 
sciences  attained  any  importance  in  literature  as  inde- 
pendent studies.  Mathematics  and  natural  philosophy 
were,  it  is  true,  cultivated  by  many,  without  the  publi- 
cation of  any  treatises  exclusively  appropriated  to  those 
subjects  ; for  instance,  we  find  mathematical  know- 
ledge practically  applied  in  the  work  of  Vitruvius  on 
Architecture.  358.  Among  practical  experiments,  we 
may  notice  the  regulation  of  the  Roman  mode  of 
reckoning  time  by  Sosigenes,  during,  the  administration 
of  Julius  Caesar,  and  the  general  survey  and  statistical 
account  of  the  Roman  Empire,  undertaken  in  the  reign 
of  Augustus  at  the  instance  of  Agrippa.  Legal  science 
was  also  sedulously  cultivated.  In  the  reign  of  Au- 
gustus, there  arose  two  celebrated  Jurists  (Q,.  Antistius 
Labeo,  and  C.  Atejus  Capito),  each  of  whom  exercised 
considerable  influence  over  the  science  of  jurispru- 
dence, and  was  the  founder  of  a distinct  legal  school. 

§ 10.  Poets. 

359.  T.  Lucretius  Carus  (a  true  poet),  b.  c.  95 — 
52,  wrote  six  books,  de  Rerum  Naturd,  in  hexameter 
verse  ; an  explanation  and  defence  of  the  Epicurean 
doctrine.  His  language  has  a character  of  antiquity. 

P.  Virgilius  Maro,  b.  c.  70 — 19,  was  highly 
esteemed  by  Augustus  and  Maecenas.  His  JEneid,  an 
epic  poem  in  twelve  books,  was  published  after  the 
death  of  the  poet  by  Varius  and  Tucca,  but  never  com- 
pleted ; Georgica,  four  books  on  agricultural  subjects  ; 
bucolic  poems  ( Ecldgce ),  in  imitation  of  the  Idyls  of 
Theocritus.  Some  smaller  poems  have  also  been  at- 
tributed to  him.  He  was  a learned  and  correct  poet, 
especially  distinguished  by  the  majestic  gravity  of  his 
style,  and  the  harmony  of  his  language. 


HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 


165 


360.  Q.  Horatius  F/accus,  b.  c.  65 — 8,  a favourite 
of  Augustus  and  Maecenas.  Four  books  of  odes,  Car- 
men Seculare,  and  one  book  of  Epodes,  in  a variety  of 
lyric  measures ; two  books  of  Satires  in  hexameter 
verse ; Epistles  in  two  books,  the  last  of  which  con- 
tains the  Epistola  ad  PisOnes,  or  Ars  Poetica.  He  is 
remarkable  for  the  nature,  truth,  and  taste  of  his  de- 
scriptions, and  his  careful  study  of  Greek  models  (e.  g. 
of  Alcaeus,  Sappho,  Archilochus). 

P.  Ovidius  Naso,  born  b.  c.  43,  died  at  Tomi,  on 
the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  a.  d.  17,  having  been 
banished  to  that  remote  spot  by  Augustus.  Metamor- 
phoses, in  fifteen  books,  a series  of  tales  out  of  the 
Grecian  Mythology,  ending  in  transformations : Ars 
Amatoria,  three  books,  in  elegiac  verse,  portraying 
the  intrigues  of  love  : Fasti,  six  books  in  elegiac  verse, 
a poetical  calendar  of  festivals  for  the  first  six  months 
of  the  Roman  year,  important,  in  an  antiquarian  point 
of  view,  with  some  minor  didactic  poems.  He  wrote 
also  elegiac  poems ; viz.,  Amores,  libri  Tristium  and 
Epistolce  ex  Ponto,  the  last  two  during  his  exile,  and 
Heroldes,  or  letters  from  the  heroines  of  the  mythic 
age  to  their  lovers.  A tragedy,  the  Medea,  is  lost.  He 
is  distinguished  by  fancy,  wit,  and  great  facility  of 
language  and  versification  ; but  his  compositions  are 
licentious  and  without  deep  feeling. 

361.  C.  Valerius  Catullus,  born  b.  c.  86  ; acquainted 
with  Cicero,  Cornelius  Nepos,  and  other  distinguished 
men.  One  hundi'ed  and  sixteen  poems,  on  various 
subjects,  and  in  different  metres ; the  most  important 
are,  Atys  and  Epithalamium  Pelei  et  Thetidos.  His 
other  poems  are  chiefly  of  an  epigrammatic  or  elegiac 
character,  e.  g.  the  Coma  Berenices,  an  imitation  of 
Callimachus.  He  is  remarkable  for  feeling  and  naivete, 
with  a good  deal  of  bitter  irony  and  satire. 

Albius  Tibullus,  born  about  b.  c.  64  or  54 ; died 
b.  c.  18  or  19.  Under  his  name  we  have  a collection 
of  Elegies,  in  four  books,  some  of  which  are  pronounced 
not  to  be  his  by  the  critics.  His  works  are  distinguished 
by  simplicity  and  nature. 


1G6 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIOUITIES 


S.  Aurelius  Propertius,  nearly  a contemporary  with 
Ovid,  but  younger.  A series  of  elegies  in  four  books. 
Remarkable  for  learning  and  force  of  expression,  but 
with  less  simplicity  than  Tibullus. 

§ 11.  Prose  writers. 

362.  M.  Terentius  Varro,  born  b.  c.  116,  died  in 
extreme  old  age.  A learned  writer,  who  composed 
several  works  on  various  subjects,  particularly  on  an- 
tiquities, and  also  some  poems  ( Satires  Menippece). 
We  possess  nothing  of  his  except  a fragment  de  Re 
Rusticd,  and  four  very  corrupt  books  of  a grammatical 
work  de  Lingua  Latind,  in  twenty-four  books. 

M.  Tullius  Cicero,  born  b.  c.  106.  His  youth,  dur- 
ing which  he  first  appeared  as  an  orator,  occurred  in 
the  time  of  the  disturbances  under  Marius  and  Sulla. 
In  consequence  of  these  tumults  he  spent  some  time  in 
Greece,  and  after  Sulla’s  death  returned  to  Rome,  and 
having  passed  through  all  the  intermediate  offices,  was 
elected  Consul  b.  c.  63.  His  enemies,  whose  designs 
were  obstructed  by  his  republican  views,  and  the 
esteem  in  which  he  was  held,  procured  his  banishment. 
After  his  recall  he  joined  the  party  of  Pompey ; but 
returned  to  Rome  after  the  battle  of  Pharsalia  ( Phar - 
sdlus ),  was  pardoned  by  Caesar,  and  devoted  the  rest 
of  his  life  to  literary  pursuits,  without  taking  any  part 
in  political  questions.  After  the  assassination  of  Caesar 
he  opposed  Antony,  and  was  murdered  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  the  Triumviri  in  the  year  b.  c.  43.  363.  Be- 

sides translations  and  poems  of  inferior  merit  (e.  g.  on 
Marius,  on  his  own  Consulate,  the  translation  of  Ara- 
tus’s  Phenomena,  of  which  we  possess  a considerable 
fragment),  his  most  important  writings  are  on  oratori- 
cal, rhetorical,  philosophical,  and  epistolary  subjects. 
Of  his  Orations  we  possess  fifty-six,  some  of  which, 
however,  are  of  doubtful  genuineness,  and  others  have 
reached  us  in  a very  imperfect  state.  Some  fragments 
of  the  lost  Orations  have  been  recently  discovered. 
His  rhetorical  writings  are,  Rhetorica  or  de  Inventione , 


HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 


167 


a youthful  production  in  two  books ; de  Oratore,  three 
books;  Brutus  or  de  Claris  Oratoribus ; Orator  ad 
Brutum,  or  de  Optimo  Genere  Dicendi ; Topica,  or  a 
treatise  on  evidence ; de  Partitione  Or  at  or  id,  an  essay 
on  arrangement ; de  Optimo  Genere  Oratorum,  a pre- 
face to  a translation  of  iEschines  and  Demosthenes, 
which  has  been  lost.  364.  His  philosophic  works  are, 
de  Republica,  or  the  best  form  of  government,  six 
books ; the  conclusion,  Somnium  Scipionis,  has  been 
preserved  to  us  by  Macrobius  (all  the  rest  was  sup- 
posed to  be  lost,  but  several  important  fragments  have 
been  discovered  by  Majo,  in  a palimpsest) ; de  Legibus, 
three  books,  originally  more ; Acadernica,  published 
originally  in  two  books,  and  afterwards  divided  by 
Cicero  into  four  (of  the  later  edition,  we  possess  a part 
of  the  first  book,  and  of  the  earlier,  a fragment  of  the 
second) ; de  Finibus  Bonorum  et  Malorum,  five  books, 
containing  the  doctrines  of  the  most  distinguished  phi- 
losophers respecting  the  chief  good : Disputationes 
Tusculance,  five  books,  on  the  most  important  moral 
questions  ; de  Naturd  Dear  urn,  three  books  ; de  Divi- 
natione,  two  books  ; de  Fato,  a fragment ; Cato  Major, 
sive  de  Senectute  ; Lcelius,  sive  de  Amicitia  ; Paradoxa 
Stoicorum.  Some  other  philosophical  works  are  lost. 
365.  We  have  three  collections  of  his  Letters;  viz., 
Epistolce  ad  Diversos,  sixteen  books  ; Epistolce  ad  T. 
Pomponium  Atticum,  sixteen  books ; and  Epistolce  ad 
Quintum  fratrem,  three  books.  The  Epistles  to  Bru- 
tus are,  undoubtedly,  spurious.9  Cicero  was  eminently 
distinguished  as  an  orator,  particularly  by  the  finished 
character  of  his  style.  As  a philosopher,  he  is  neither 
a deep  nor  an  original  thinker.  His  study  of  the  Greek 
philosophy,  which  he  followed  as  an  eclectic,  was  more 
extensive  than  profound.  Most  of  his  philosophical 
works  were  written  in  the  last  period  of  his  life. 

306.  C.  Julius  Ccescir,  b.  c.  99-44.  Of  his  numer- 
ous writings  on  various  subjects  (grammar,  politics, 
\ 

9 Their  gjnuineness  has  been  lately  very  ably  defended  by  C.  F. 
Hermann, 


168 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


poetry,  &c.,)  we  possess  only  some  historical  works ; 
viz.,  seven  books,  Commentarii  de  Bello  Gallico  (an 
eighth  is  added  by  another  hand),  and  three  books,  de 
Bello  Civili.  The  books,  de  Bello  Alexandrino,  Afri- 
cano,  and  Hispaniensi,  are  not  by  Caesar.  His  style  is 
remarkable  for  good  taste,  ease,  and  simplicity. 

Cornelius  Nepos,  contemporary  with  Caesar.  Most 
of  his  works  are  lost.  We  possess,  however,  his  Vitce 
Excellentium  Imperatorum,  a collection  of  short  bio- 
graphical sketches  of  twenty  Grecian  and  two  Cartha- 
ginian generals ; de  Regibus,  a biography  of  Cato,  and 
a more  diffuse  one  of  Atticus.  Some  critics  have 
ascribed  these  works  to  JEmilius  Probus,  a writer  in 
the  time  of  Theodosius. 

367.  C.  Sallustius  Crispus,  c.  c.  86-36.  Catilina 
and  Jugurtha,  with  some  fragments  of  his  Histories. 
Some  other  works  have  been  improperly  attributed  to 
him.  He  is  distinguished  by  brevity,  liveliness,  and 
force ; but  his  laborious  imitation  of  the  antique  is  not 
always  natural. 

T.  Livius,  born  b.  c.  59,  died  a.  d.  18.  His  work 
comprised  a history  of  Rome  from  its  foundation  to  the 
death  of  Drusus,  in  the  year  a.  d.  10,  in  one  hundred 
and  forty-two  books,  of  which  only  thirty-five  have 
reached  us ; viz.  the  first  ten,  and  from  the  twenty-first 
to  the  forty-fifth,  besides  fragments,  and  short  notices 
of  contents  {Epitomes).  He  follows  the  annalists  in  his 
account  of  ancient,  and  Polybius  in  that  of  modern 
times.  Correct  and  eloquent,  but  often  without  any 
profound  critical  or  philosophical  views. 

368.  M.  Vitruvius  Pollio,  who  constructed  mili- 
tary engines  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  and  wrote  ten 
books,  de  Architecture.  His  style  exhibits  very  little 
command  of  language. 

Two  celebrated  authors  of  the  Augustan  era,  Tro- 
gus  Pompejus,  who  wrote  Histories  Pliilippicce,  in 
forty-four  books ; and  Verrius  Flaccus,  a grammarian, 
who  published  a grammatical  antiquarian  work,  de 
Verborum  Significations,  are  known  to  us  only  through 
extracts  made  at  a later  period,  the  first  b}^  Justin,  the 


HISTORY  OP  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 


169 


other  by  Festus.  Another  renowned  grammarian  of 
that  period  is  C.  Julius  Hyginus,  under  whose  name 
we  have  two  works,  Fabularum  Liber,  and  Poeticdn 
Astronomicon  Libri  IV.,  which,  however,  are  generally 
supposed  to  have  been  written  at  a much  later  period. 

§ 12.  Fourth  period — from  the  death  of  Augustus  to 
the  Antonines. 

369.  This  period  exhibits  to  us  the  gradual  decline 
of  Roman  literature  under  unfavourable  circumstances, 
such  as  the  entire  destruction  of  liberty,  and  the 
despotism  of  barbarian  princes.  There  still  remained, 
it  is  true,  a sort  of  literary  vitality,  which  extended 
itself  considerably  in  certain  directions ; libraries  and 
schools  were  also  founded  by  hundreds  ; but  a perverted 
taste  began  gradually  to  prevail,  displaying  itself  in  a 
passion  for  the  far-fetched,  the  artificial,  and  the  over- 
drawn, and  in  ill-judged  endeavours  to  conceal  their 
intellectual  poverty  by  the  affectation  of  learning.  Yet 
even  in  this  age  we  discover  many  vestiges  of  better 
days.  In  poetry,  for  instance,  the  satirist  found  a mine 
of  wealth  in  the  vices  and  follies  of  his  times.  Prose 
literature  was  also  particularly  rich  in  historians. 
Oratory  and  its  theory  were  still  cultivated,  but  its 
political  importance  was  for  ever  gone,  and  its  rules 
were  for  the  most  part  applied  only  to  declamations. 
Philosophy  also,  especially  that  of  the  Stoics,  and 
grammar  found  a host  of  professors. 

§ 13.  Poets. 

370.  Phcedrus,  in  the  time  of  Augustus  and  Tibe- 
rius. A collection  of  Fables,  the  genuineness  of  which 
has  been  disputed  by  some  writers. 

A.  Persius  Flaccus,  born  a.  d.  34,  six  Satires. 

D.  Junius  Juvenalis,  born  in  the  reign  of  Claudius. 
Sixteen  of  his  Satires  are  extant,  but  the  genuineness 
of  the  last  is  doubtful. 

M.  Valerius  Martialis,  born  about  a.  n.  40,  flourished 
8 


170 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


in  the  reigns  of  Titus  and  Domitian.  A collection  of 
Epigrammatical  Poems,  in  fourteen  books. 

371.  M.  Anrueus  Lucanus,  born  a.  n.  38,  murdered 
in  the  reign  of  Nero,  a.  d.  65.  Of  his  numerous  poems 
we  possess  only  his  chef  d’oeuvre,  Pharsalia,  an  epic 
poem,  on  the  war  between  Pompey  and  Caesar,  brought 
down  to  the  siege  of  Alexandria.  The  narrative  is 
strictly  historical,  and  the  language  rhetorical,  but  the 
versification  is  imperfect. 

C.  Silius  Italicus,  from  a.  d.  25  to  100.  Punica, 
a composition  of  slender  merit,  in  a poetical  point  of 
view. 

C.  Valerius  Flaccus,  in  the  reign  of  Vespasian, 
Argonautica. 

P.  Papinius  Statius,  born  a.  d.  61.  Of  his  works  we 
have  the  Thebais,  a poem,  on  the  contention  between 
the  sons  of  CEdipus  ; Silvce,  a collection  of  poems  ; and 
an  unfinished  poetical  work  styled,  Achilleis. 

C.  Petronius,  probably  in  the  reign  of  Claudius  or 
Nero.  Satiricon,  a narrative  describing  an  effeminate 
life. 

§ 14.  Prose  writers. 

372.  C.  Velleijus  Paterculus,  in  the  reign  of  Tibe- 
rius. Historice  Romance,  in  two  books.  The  greater 
part  of  the  first  is  lost. 

Valerius  Maximus,  flourished  about  the  same  time. 
Factorum  Dictorumque  Memorabilium  libri  IX.,  a col- 
lection of  remarkable  passages  and  anecdotes. 

C.  Cornelius  Tacitus,  under  Vespasian,  Titus,  Do- 
mitian, Nerva,  and  Trajan.  His  works  are,  de  Situ, 
Moribus  Populisque  Germanics ; a biography  of  his 
father-in-law,  the  renowned  general  Agricola ; Histo- 
rice, a history  of  the  Emperors  from  Galba  to  the  death 
of  Domitian,  of  which  we  possess  little  more  than  four 
books  ; Annales,  a history  of  Rome,  from  the  death  of 
Augustus  to  the  death  of  Nero,  sixteen  books,  also  im- 
perfect. It  has  been  disputed  whether  the  Dialdgus 
de  Oratoribus  is  his  composition.  His  style  is  oratori- 


HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 


171 


cal,  but  expressive  and  nervous.  His  writings  are  dis- 
tinguished by  manly  gravity  and  profound  feeling. 

373.  Q.  Curtius  Rufus  flourished,  probably,  in  the 
reign  of  Vespasian.1  Some  writers  assign  him  an 
earlier,  and  others  a much  later  period.  De  Rebus 
Gestis  Alexandri  Magni,  in  ten  books,  of  which  the 
first  two  are  wanting.  His  language  is  flowing,  but 
he  has  none  of  the  critical  tact  and  accurate  judgment 
of  a true  historian. 

L.  Annans  Florus,  probably  in  the  reign  of  Trajan 
EpitQme  de  Rebus  Gestis  Romanorum,  four  books. 

C.  Suetonius  Tranquillus , under  Domitian  and 
Hadrian.  Of  his  numerous  writings  we  possess  Vita 
XII.  (i.  e.  of  the  first  twelve)  Imperatorum ; de  Illustri- 
bus  Grammaticis ; de  Claris  Rhetoribus.  Some  shorter 
separate  biographies  have  also  been  attributed  to  him. 
Simple,  correct,  and  worthy  of  credit. 

374.  L.  Annaeus  Seneca,  born  shortly  after  the  birth 
of  our  Lord,  died  a.  d.  65,  in  the  reign  of  Nero.  Of  his 
writings  we  possess  a series  of  philosophical  treatises  ; 
a collection  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-four  letters 
on  philosophical  subjects ; seven  books  Qucestionum 
Naturalium,  or  physical  essays.  We  have  also  ten 
tragedies  bearing  his  name,  which  have  been  attri- 
buted, by  some  writers,  to  another  Seneca,  or  to 
several  authors  ; and  a catalogue  of  lost  writings,  with 
some  of  doubtful  genuineness,  or  which  have  been 
proved  to  be  spurious.  Seneca  was  a Stoic.  His 
writings  are  distinguished  by  nervous  eloquence,  and 
a severe  practical  tendency,  but  his  style  is  exceed- 
ingly rhetorical. 

L.  Junius  Moderatus  Columella,  a contemporary  of 
Seneca.  De  Re  Rustica. 

Pomponius  Mela,  in  the  reign  of  Claudius.  De  Situ 
Orbis,  a geographical  treatise  in  three  books. 

375.  M.  Fabius  Quinctilianus,  born  a.  d.  42.  In- 
stitutio  Oratoria,  twelve  books.  A collection  of  de- 
clamations is  also  ascribed  to  him  by  some  writers. 
Distinguished  by  profound  learning  and  taste. 

1 Buttmann. — Niebuhr  places  him  in  the  reign  of  Septnnius  Severus. 


172 


MANUAL  OF  ROiMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


C.  Plinius  Secundus  Major,  a.  d.  23 — 79.  Of  hig 
numerous  works  we  possess  only  the  Historia  Natu- 
ralis,  in  thirty-seven  books,  a voluminous  compilation 
from  several  works. 

C.  Plinius  Ccecilius  Secundus,  nephew  of  the  elder 
Pliny,  born  a.  n.  62.  Of  his  orations  we  have  only  the 
Panegyricus  on  Trajan.  A. collection  of  Letters  in 
ten  books.  His  language  is  flowing  and  lively,  but  the 
ideas  are  far-fetched. 

A.  Cornelius  Celsus,  in  tne  reigns  of  Augustus  and 
Tiberius.  We  have  eight  books  on  Medicine  by  this 
author ; being  properly  one  division  of  a larger  work 
in  an  encyclopaedic  form. 


§ 15.  Fifth  Period — -from  the  Antonines  to  the  Fall 
of  the  Western  Empire,  a.  d.  476. 

376.  Literature  now  declined  more  perceptibly. 
The  purity  of  the  Latin  language  was  lost ; and  the 
prevailing  taste  was  for  spiritless  compilations,  with 
an  ostentatious  display  of  learning.  Among  the  poets 
the  most  remarkable  are, — 

Claudius  Claudianus,  under  Theodosius  the  Great 
and  his  sons.  Various  poems,  particularly  epics,  of 
which  the  subjects  are  taken  from  the  events  of  his 
times. 

D.  Magnus  Ausonius,  born  a d.  309.  Epigram- 
matic poems  and  Idylls,  such  as  the  Mosella. 

Aurelius  Prudentius  Clemens,  a Christian  poet. 

Of  the  other  writers  we  may  mention : 

Justinus,  under  the  Antonines.  He  abridged  the 
work  of  Trogus  Pompejus. 

377.  Eutropius,  under  Constantine  and  Valens. 
Breviarium  Historice  Romance,  a short  Roman  history, 
written  in  a clear  and  simple  style. 

Sextus  Rufus,  in  the  reign  of  Valens.  Breviarium 
Rerum  Gestarum  Populi  Romani. 

S.  Aurelius  Victor,  under  Julian,  and  Ammianus 
Marcellinus,  under  Valens  and  Valentinian,  until  the 
reign  of  Theodosius,  have  contributed  notices  for  a 


HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE* 


173 


history  of  the  Emperors.  The  first  has  also  written 
some  short  biographical  sketches. 

Orosius,  in  the  fifth  century.  Historiarum  Libra 
VII.  adversus  Paganos,  a history  of  human  suffering 
and  misery. 

378.  Appulejus,  under  the  Antonines.  Author  of 
several  works  on  oratorical  and  philosophical  subjects, 
some  of  which  have  been  lost.  The  most  important 
of  those  which  we  possess  is,  Metamorp fioseon,  sive  de 
Asino  Aureo  Libri  XI.,  a,  narrative. 

Censorinus,  about  the  year  a.  d.  238,  under  Maxi- 
mus and  Gordian.  De  Die  Natali,  on  the  influence 
of  the  heavenly  bodies  on  men. 

A.  Gellius,  a celebrated  grammarian,  who  lived  in 
the  time  of  the  Antonines.  Nodes  Atticce,  twenty 
books  ; of  which  the  eighth  is  wanting ; a collection 
of  excerpta  of  some  value. 

We  have  also  as  Grammarians,  Festus  (who  abridged 
the  work  of  Verrius  Flaccus,  de  Verborum  Significa- 
tione),  and  JElius  Donatus. 

379.  Macrobius,  in  the  first  half  of  the  fifth  century. 
A Commentary  on  the  Somnium  Scipionis ; and  Satur- 
nalia, a work  of  the  same  sort  as  the  Nodes  Atticce  of 
Gellius. 

As  a Jurist  we  may  notice  Gajus,  under  the  Anto- 
nines ; Libri  Institutionum  IV. 

There  lived  also  during  this  period  the  Fathers  of 
the  Church,  Tertullianus,  Arnobius,  Ladantius,  Am- 
brosius  Hieronymus  (Jerome),  Augustinus,  &c. 

§ 16.  Sixth  Period. 

380.  After  the  destruction  of  the  Western  Empire, 
learning  rapidly  declined,  and  even  the  language  lost 
more  and  more  of  its  ancient  character.  Literature 
dragged  on  a lingering  existence,  chiefly  in  encyclopsB 
dias  and  grammatical  works.  Among  the  writers  of 
this  period  we  may  mention  Boethius,  a.  d.  470 — 524. 
(Numerous  works  on  philosophical  and  mathematical 
subjects,  and  commentaries  on  the  writings  of  the  an- 


m 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


cient  philosophers).  Contemporarily  with  him  flourish- 
ed Cassiodorus,  also  in  the  reign  of  Theodoric.  His 
principal  work  is  a collection  of  Letters  ; Variarum 
Libri  XII.  of  some  historical  value.  About  the  same 
ime  lived  the  grammarian  Priscianus  Cassariensis.2 


2 The  saying  of  the  Greeks,  that  the  language  of  men  is  like  their 
lives,  is  confirmed  also  by  the  history  of  Rome.  The  corruption  of  the 
Latin  language  was  a necessary  consequence  of  the  altered  form  of  go- 
vernment, and  of  the  languor  and  indolence  into  which  the  nation  sank. 
The  cultivation  of  their  mother-tongue  had  begun  to  be  neglected  in  the 
early  part  of  the  empire,  and  the  Greek  became  the  language  of  all 
fashionable  circles,  when  the  education  of  children  was  conducted  by  Greek 
tutors  and  governesses.  The  vast  number  of  slaves  and  foreigners,  who 
came  to  Rome  from  all  parts,  contributed  not  a little  towards  this  cor- 
ruption ; the  old  and  powerful  simplicity  of  the  language  disappeared,  and 
the  desire  to  speak  and  write  in  a striking  and  piquant  manner  produced 
that  hollow  pomp  and  tinkling  of  words  which  we  meet  with  as  early  as 
the  time  of  Nero. 

In  the  reign  of  Augustus,  Roman  literature  had  reached  its  highest 
perfection,  but  its  decline  began  even  before  his  death  ; for  the  establish- 
ment of  the  monarchy  put  an  end  to  all  free  public  oratory,  and  eloquence 
was  henceforth  cultivated  only  in  funeral  orations  or  encomiums,  and  in 
the  rhetorical  schools.  With  the  accession  of  Tiberius,  the  flourishing 
period  of  literature  came  to  its  close : the  corruption  of  taste  began  ; and 
the  oppression  of  the  ruler  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  moral  depravity  of 
the  people  on  the  other,  crushed  all  free  development  of  intellectual  life, 
which  the  establishment  of  libraries,  and  schools,  and  the  appointment 
of  salaried  teachers,  were  unable,  to  restore.  But  while  intellectual 
activity  sank  at  Rome,  it  became  extended  in  the  provinces,  which  thus 
began  to  participate  in  the  literature  of  the  capital ; for  booksellers  are 
mentioned  at  Lyons,  in  Gaul,  and  they  undoubtedly  existed  in  all  the 
great  towns  of  the  West.  A depravation  of  taste,  both  in  regard  to 
purity  of  diction  and  to  the  manner  of  handling  a subject,  may  be  seen  in 
the  poems  of  Lucan,  Valerius  Flaccus,  Silius  Italicus,  and  Papinius  Sta- 
tius, whose  epics  are  bombastic  and  learned,  but  devoid  of  the  genuine 
spirit  of  poetry.  The  character  of  the  age  afforded  ample  material  for 
bitter  satire,  and  produced  a Persius,  Juvenal,  Petronius,  and  Martial, 
whose  works,  however,  in  point  of  taste  and  refinement,  are  greatly  in- 
ferior to  the  satires  of  Horace.  The  AUsopic  fable  was  successfully  culti- 
vated in  verse  by  Phasdrus,  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius.  After  the  time  of 
Commodus  we  scarcely  meet  with  a poet  deserving  of  the  name. 

Latin  prose  likewise  degenerated  after  the  reign  of  Augustus:  the 
philosopher  Seneca,  the  instructor  of  Nero,  exercised  an  injurious  influ- 
ence upon  it  by  the  rhetorical  and  affected  manner  of  his  style,  which 
was  counteracted,  though  in  vain,  by  the  great  rhetorician  Quintilian. 
In  the  time  of  Hadrian  and  the  Antonines,  there  sprung  up  a singular 
fondness  for  old-fashioned  and  rare  words  and  expressions,  as  we  see  in 
the  works  of  Apuleius  and  Fronto.  Historical  writing  laboured  under 
still  greater  disadvantages ; for  at  that  time  men  were  obliged  to  be  as 


HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  jJTERATURE. 


175 


APPENDIX. 

§ 17.  The  Alphabet,  Writing  Materials,  Books, 
Libraries. 

381.  The  Roman  alphabet  is  borrowed  from  the 
Greek.3  The  orthography  of  the  language  was  for  a 
long  time  uncertain,  as  we  find  by  the  ancient  coins 
and  inscriptions.  The  substances  on  which  laws, 
agreements,  &c.  were  inscribed,  were  at  first  stone, 
bronze,  and  other  metals,  or  wood  {album,  tabulae) . 
The  Romans  also  employed  at  an  early  period  the 
bark  of  certain  trees,  and  linen  (libri  lintei),  and  after- 
wards generally  the  fine  rind  of  the  papyrus  ( charta 
papyracea ),  small  strips  of  which  were  glued  together, 
or  parchment  (membrance),  or  tablets  covered  with 
wax.  They  wrote  on  these  with  a stilus,  one  end  of 
which  was  sharp  for  writing,  and  the  other  broad  for 
erasure.  382.  On  paper  or  parchment  they  wrote  with 
the  calamus,  a kind  of  reed,  chiefly  brought  from  Egypt 
or  Gnidus,  with  a sort  of  ink  or  black  liquid  (atramen- 
tum),  and  generally  only  on  one  side  of  the  paper.  The 
most  ancient  form  of  books  is  the  volumen,  in  which 
the  leaves  were  pasted  together,  and  rolled  round  cylin- 

cautious  in  what  they  said  of  their  cotemporaries,  and  even  of  men  of  a 
by-gone  age,  as  in  any  modern  state  where  the  censorship  exercises  its 
despotism.  Thus  the  Emperor  Claudius  was  compelled  to  suppress  his 
history  of  the  civil  wars,  because  he  had  treated  the  subject  in  too  honest 
a manner  ; and  Aurelius  Rusticus  and  Herennius  Senecio  were  put  to 
death  because  they  praised  men  whom  they  thought  deserving  of  com- 
mendation, but  whom  Domitian  hated.  Notwithstanding  all  this,  there 
arose  some  historians  of  eminence,  both  in  regard  to  their  style  and  to 
the  method  of  treating  their  subjects.  Among  these  we  must  mention 
Velleius  Paterculus  (a  cotemporary  and  flatterer  of  Tiberius),  Suetonius, 
and,  above  all,  the  great  Tacitus,  a man  who  stands  preeminent  and 
alone  in  the  corrupt  age  in  which  he  lived.  After  the  time  of  Commodus, 
historical  compositions  sank  to  the  very  lowest  state  ; and  the  only  histo- 
rian of  any  note,  during  the  remaining  period  of  the  Empire,  was  Am- 
rnianus  Marcellinus,  about  a.  d.  360. 

8 According  to  the  legend,  the  alphabet  was  brought  into  Italy  by 
Evander. 


176 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


ders  of  wood  or  bone.  The  square  form  ( codices ) was 
also  employed,  chiefly  for  account  books.  Copies  were 
multiplied  by  the  labours  of  transcribers  ( scribes  libra- 
rii).  Letters  were  written  on  thin  wooden  tablets 
overspread  with  wax.  These  were  fastened  together, 
and  the  string  ( linum ) sealed  with  wax.  383.  We 
hear  of  booksellers  ( bibliopolce ) towards  the  end  of 
the  Republic.  The  brothers  Sosii  are  mentioned  by 
Horace.  The  iEdiles,  who  were  charged  with  the 
superintendence  of  the  public  feasts  and  games,  pur- 
chased dramatic  pieces  from  their  authors.  The  first 
private  library  of  which  we  have  any  account,  was 
that  of  L.  TEmilius  Paullus.  Afterwards,  books  were 
brought  by  Sulla  from  Athens,  and  by  Lucullus  out  of 
Asia ; and  it  became  the  custom  in  every  great  house, 
to  fit  up  one  room  as  a library.  Among  the  public 
collections  of  books,  the  most  remarkable  was  that  of 
Asinius  Pollio  in  the  temple  of  the  Palatine  Apollo. 
Many  others  were  afterwards  added. 

§ 18.  Inscriptions. 

384.  Inscriptions  were  very  numerous  among  the 
ancients.  A great  variety  of  them  on  tablets  of  stone, 
walls,  vessels,  utensils,  &c.,  have  escaped  the  ravages 
of  time.  Some  of  these  are  important  as  historical 
documents.  The  great  difficulty  in  deciphering  them 
arises  from  the  numerous  abbreviations,  which  often 
render  the  meaning  ambiguous.  Whole  sentences,  for 
instance,  were  often  represented  by  the  initial  letter  of 
each  word,  e.  g.  D.  S.  P.  F.  C.;  — de  sua  pecunia  fa- 
ciendum curavit.  A critical  examination  is  also  neces- 
sary here,  as  many  of  the  inscriptions  which  we  possess, 
are  spurious.  385.  The  most  ancient  inscriptions  are ; 
those  on  the  monuments  of  the  family  of  Scipio,  on  the 
via  Appia  ( L . Scipio  Barbatus  cons.  u.  c.  298) ; the 
inscriptions  at  the  foot  of  the  columna  rostrata  Duilii  ; 
a Senatus  consultum  de  Eacchanalibus  (b.  c.  186)  on 
copper,  with  some  other  laws  and  decrees  of  the  Senate 
inscribed  on  the  same  metal ; the  monumentum  Ancy- 


HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  LITERATURE. 


177 


ranum,  a relic  of  the  time  of  Augustus,  containing 
rules  for  the  administration  of  the  Government ; frag- 
ments of  the  Fasti  Capitolini ,4  and  a host  of  other 
inscriptions  of  the  time  of  the  Empire.  Lastly,  we 
possess  a great  number  of  inscriptions  on  gold,  silver, 
and  copper  coins,  wThich  are  often  of  great  historical 
importance. 

§ 19.  Codices. 

386.  The  writings  of  the  ancients  have  reached  us 
in  the  form  of  codices.  Although  the  number  of  these 
is  very  considerable,  they  have,  in  most  cases,  been  so 
mutilated  through  the  carelessness  and  ignorance  of 
the  earlier  librarii,  and  the  monkish  writing  of  the 
middle  ages,  as  well  as  by  the  intermixture  of  glosses 
with  the  text,  as  to  require  the  most  careful  examina- 
tion and  collation,  in  order  to  arrive  at  the  meaning  of 
the  author.  In  some  cases,  indeed,  we  must  content 
ourselves  with  a probable  conjecture,  and  in  others, 
give  up  all  hope  of  discovering  the  true  reading.  Very 
few  codices  go  back  so  far  as  the  sixth  century  of  the 
Christian  era.  387.  The  more  ancient  may  be  gene- 
rally recognized  by  the  letters,  which  are  larger,  and 
similar  in  form  to  those  of  the  inscriptions  and  on 
coins.  The  more  modern  are  known  by  the  smaller 
chai'acter,  by  the  division  of  the  sentences  by  means 
of  puncta  and  kommata,  by  the  contraction  of  the 
diphthongs,  &c.  In  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries,  the 
manuscript  is  more  elegant ; but  after  that  period,  the 
letters  are  clumsily  formed,  and  the  abbreviations  more 
numerous.  Amongst  the  oldest  codices  are  a codex 
Mediceus  and  a codex  Vaticanus  of  Virgil,  a Vatican 
codex  of  Terence,  and  a Florentine  one  of  the  Pandects. 

4 The  Fasti  are  either  Calendares  or  Magistratuum.  To  the  Fasti 
Calendares  belong  the  Fasti  Prcenestini,  published  in  the  reign  of  Au- 
gustus, fragments  of  which  have  been  discovered.  Of  the  Fasti  Magis- 
tratuum, we  may  mention  the  Fasti  Capitolini,  of  which  some  fragments 
are  also  extant.  They  consist  of  Fasti  Consulares,  lists  of  the  chief 
magistrates,  and  Triumphales,  lists  of  generals  who  had  been  honoured 
with  triumphs. 


QUESTIONS 


ON  THE 

ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


1.  Wet  must  the  descriptions  of  the  Roman  historians  be  used  with 
caution  ? Why  cannot  the  Greek  historians  and  the  orators  be  entirely 
trusted  1 

4.  To  what  was  the  empire  of  Rome  at  first  limited  1 When  did  it 
extend  its  power  over  the  whole  of  Italy  ? At  the  dissolution  of  the  re- 
public, how  was  the  Roman  territory  bounded  ? In  the  time  of  the 
republic,  on  what  was  the  actual  participation  of  Roman  citizens  in  the 
affairs  of  government  dependent  ? 

5.  What  was  the  situation  of  Rome  ? On  what  hill  was  it  founded  ? 

Who  is  said  to  have  surrounded  all  the  seven  hills  with  a wall  ? Give 
their  names.  Who  fortified  the  city  again  ? What  hills  did  he  include  ? 
Explain  pomcerium.  Into  what  tribes  did  Servius  Tullius  divide  the  city  ? 
To  what  was  this  number  increased  by  Augustus  ? 6.  Give  the  original 

character  of  Rome  as  to  beauty  and  architectural  decorations ; its  charac- 
ter after  its  destruction  by  the  Gauls ; in  and  after  the  time  of  Augustus  ; 
and  after  the  conflagration  in  Nero’s  reign. 

7.  Name  the  most  remarkable  porta,  and  pontes.  Name  the  most 
remarkable  vim.  To  what  city  did  the  via  Appia  lead  ? Account  for  its 
name.  How  were  distances  marked  upon  it  ? Over  what  bridge  was 
the  via  Flaminia  carried,  and  to  what  country  did  it  lead  ? Where  was 
the  forum  Romanum  situated?  Describe  the  situation  of  the  Campus 
Martius,  and  for  what  purpose  it  was  used.  Name  some  principal  tem- 
ples; some  theatres,  amphitheatres,  and  circuses.  Of  which  of  these 
edifices  do  there  still  remain  some  ruins? 

8.  When  Rome  was  founded,  what  people  dwelt  between  the  right 

bank  of  the  Tiber  and  the  Rhsetian  Alps  ? Who  were  settled  between 
the  left  bank  and  the  Blare  Superum  ? who  lower  down  ? Who  dwelt  to 
the  south  of  the  Tiber?  What  colonies  were  there  at  the  lowest  ex- 
tremity of  Italy  ? Who  settled  on  the  Tiber  ? By  whom,  when,  and 
where  is  the  city  of  Rome  said  to  have  been  founded  ? 9.  State  what  is 

known  of  the  early  position  of  Rome  with  respect  to  its  powers  and  its 
relation  to  the  surrounding  tribes.  How  did  it  rapidly  acquire  internal 
strength,  and  an  increased  population  ? 1 0.  At  an  early  period,  into  what 

tribes  do  we  find  the  Roman  people  divided  ? Were  these  tribes  probably 


180 


QUESTIONS  TO 


of  the  same  stock  or  not  ? Which  seems  to  have  been  the  last  tha 
joined  the  other  two  ? Who  were  probably  the  first  patricii  ? In  what 
relation  to  them  did  the  clientes  probably  stand?  11.  Distinguish  the 
plebeii  from  these.  From  what  offices  and  privileges  were  the  clientes 
and  plebeii  excluded  ? By  what  supposition  with  regard  to  the  origin  of 
each,  may  we  best  account  for  the  relative  positions  of  the  patricians  and 
plebeians  ? 

12.  Were  the  Roman  kings  hereditary  or  elective  ? Was  their  power 
absolute  or  limited  ? What  were  their  principal  functions?  Who  shared 
their  power?  13.  What  traits  do  we  discover,  even  in  the  period  of  the 
Kings,  of  that  peculiar  character,  which  was  always  borne  by  the  Roman 
people  ? What  kings  showed  a disposition  to  settle  the  mutual  relations 
of  citizens  by  laws  and  established  regulations  ? Which  of  them  mani- 
fested respect  for  property,  and  a political  regard  to  a pecuniary  qualifica- 
tion ? which  a reverence  for  religion  ? which  a taste  for  handsome  and 
durable  public  buildings  ? 14.  What  was  the  most  important  of  all  the 

political  changes  under  the  Kings  ? What  burdens  were  laid  upon  the 
rich  ? by  what  privileges  were  these  burdens  compensated  ? 

15.  When  was  the  monarchy  exchanged  for  a republican  constitution 
under  the  two  Consuls?  Was  this  a total  change  in  the  form  of  the  con- 
stitution? What  bodies  now  became  more  and  more  influential  ? From 
what  causes?  16.  What  troubles  and  contests  gradually  developed  the 
constitution  of  Rome  ? What  was  the  most  important  step  towards  ob- 
taining independence  for  the  Plebeians?  17.  To  what  was  the  original 
power  of  the  Tribunes  confined  ? What  power  Rid  they  soon  acquire  ? 
on  what  occasion?  What  was  the  law  of  Volero  Publilius?  18.  In 
what  Comitia  did  the  Patricians  still  exert  great  influence  ? In  the 
Comitia  centuriata  themselves,  how  was  the  ^influence  of  the  Patricians 
exerted  ? 

19.  After  what  event  did  the  popular  power  assume  a more  decided 
form  ? Why  was  the  Decemvirate  created  ? 20.  What  power  had  the 

Comitia  centuriata  possessed  ? By  what  Comitia  wras  this  power  now 
claimed  ? What  was  the  lex  Valeria  Horalia  ? when  passed  ? What 
did  the  lex  Canuleja  authorize?  21.  What  led  to  the  establishment  of 
three  Trihuni  mililum  consulari  potestate  ? Were  Plebeians  eligible  to 
the  military  tribunate  ? What  other  new  office  was  created  ? Was  it 
exclusively  patrician  or  not?  What  alterations  of  sovereign  power  now 
occurred?  Were  the  Trihuni  militum  often  Plebeians? 

22.  By  what  law  were  Plebeians  rendered  eligible  to  one  of  the  two 
Consulships?  What  new  offices  were  created?  Were  they,  either  or 
both,  exclusively  Patrician  ? After  what  year  do  we  hear  no  more  of 
two  patrician  Consuls?  What  offices  were  by  degrees  thrown  open  to 
the  Plebeians  ? By  what  law  were  the  priesthoods  opened  to  the  people  ? 
When  ? 22,  23.  From  the  passing  of  w'hat  law  must  we  date  the  disso- 

lution of  the  Patrician  order  as  a political  body?  What  Comitia  still 
retained  their  power?  which  of  them  lost  theirs?  On  what  was  the  new 
nobility  founded,  after  the  admission  of  Plebeians  to  all  offices?  24. 
How  did  this  nobility  render  itself  more  exclusive?  What  circumstance 
connected  with  the  JEdileship  (which,  as  the  lowest  magistracy,  was  the 
necessary  first  step  to  all  the  rest ) excluded  many  from  the  great  offices 
6f  state?  How  did  this  tend  to  aggrandize  the  nobility?  Till  what 
event  did  the  government  go  on  steadily  and  quietly  on  the  whole  ? What 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIOUITIES. 


181 


legislative,  and  what  judicial  power  did  the  people  then  possess?  What 
authority  belonged  to  the  Senate?  From  what  body  were  the  judices 
selected  ? What  wars  made  great  exertions  necessary  ? What  was  the 
general  result  of  these  exertions  ? 

25.  When  did  a certain  degree  of  laxity  begin  to  manifest  itself  both 
in  public  and  private  life  ? What  was  now  added  to  the  lust  of  conquest  ? 
What  principle  gradually  disappeared  ? What  violent  struggle  now  took 
place  ? What  was  manifested  in  this  struggle  ? 26.  By  whom  were  the 

Senate  and  nobles  in  part  supported  ? Who  were  the  Equites  or  Knights ? 
How  did  they  acquire  great  wealth  ? By  what  oppressive  character  was 
their  conservative  tendency  counterbalanced  ? How  was  the  number  of 
discontented  citizens  increased?  27.  What  was  the  immediate , what  the 
ultimate  effect  of  the  laws  passed  by  the  Gracchi  ? When  did  Tib. 
Gracchus  die  ? When  Caius  ? What  were  the  provisions  of  the  lex 
agraria  ? When  were  the  moral  corruption  and  gross  venality  of  the 
nobility  displayed  in  the  strongest  light  ? What  important  defeat  did  the 
nobility  then  suffer  ? 

28.  When  did  the  Social  war  break  out?  What  right  did  the  Latin 
and  Italian  people  now  extort?  Of  what  evils  was  the  admission  of  this 
crowd  of  citizens  productive  ? Describe  its  general  effect.  29.  What  re- 
action in  favour  of  the  nobles  was  brought  about  ? In  what  respect  did 
Sulla’s  example  prove  a bad  precedent  ? When  did  the  people  recover 
their  rights?  did  they  also  recover  the  power  of  exerting  them  effectu- 
ally? Who  acquired  an  overwhelming  influence?  30.  Who  finally 
appropriated  to  himself  a perpetual  Dictatorship  ? Did  any  true  republi- 
can spirit  still  exist  ? What  new  combination  was  now  formed  ? In 
what  did  it  end  ? Under  what  title  did  Octavianus  concentrate  all  power 
in  his  own  person  ? Did  he  allow  the  republican  forms  to  remain  ? 

31.  Were  these  forms  still  retained  under  the  succeeding  Emperors? 
What  innovations  and  changes  destroyed  even  the  shadow  of  Roman 
freedom  ? 

32.  How  were  the  freemen  divided? 

33.  What  two  meanings  does  the  word  civitas  possess?  Did  Rome 
ever  consider  herself  as  one  of  the  Latin  stales  ? What  were  peregrim 
originally  called  ? What  entire  class  of  citizens  were  excluded  from  the 
most  important  rights  ? 

34.  What  responsibilities  were  common  to  all  citizens  ? Name  the 
most  important  civil  privileges  in  public  life.  Explain  jus  suffragii  and 
jus  honorum.  Mention  some  enactments  by  which  the  person  of  the 
Roman  citizen  was  also  protected.  35.  In  its  relation  to  private  rights, 
how  may  civitas  be  considered  ? Explain  connuhium  and  commercium 
When  were  Roman  citizens  entirely  exempted  from  the  payment  of 
taxes?  Of  what  was  every  Roman  ^citizen  obliged  to  be  a member? 
Where  must  his  name  be  enrolled  ? By  what  term  are  the  aggregate 
rights  of  a Roman  citizen  expressed  ? 

36.  How  were  the  inhabitants  of  a conquered  territory  treated  in  the 
earliest  times  ? What  was  the  nature  of  civitas  sine  suffragio  ? When 
was  the  lex  Julia  passed  ? What  rights  did  it  confer  on  the  Latin  and 
Italian  tribes?  To  what  country  did  J.  Caesar  grant  the  civitas?  On 
whom  did  Caracalla  bestow  it  ? 

37.  In  what  way  was  the  privilege  of  citizenship  acquired  ? How  was 
it  lost  ? Explain  dcminutio  capitis.  Mention  its  various  kinds  or  degrees. 


182 


aUESTIONS  TO 


38.  What  division  of  the  citizens  was  much  more  permanent  than 
i n a t of  the  Curias  ? What  distinction  was  afterwards  introduced  ? What 
new  ordo  appeared  ? Mention  some  other  distinctions. 

39.  Into  how  many  tribes  did  Romulus  divide  the  people  ? Name 
them.  What  does  this  classification  seem  to  indicate  ! With  what 
political  measures  do  the  union  of  these  tribes,  and  their  extension  by  L. 
Tarquinius  Priscus,  stand  in  close  connexion  ? How  were  the  three  tribus 
divided  ? Who  was  the  chief  officer  of  each  cury  ? What  was  the  most 
ancient  political  assembly  1 When  did  the  whole  institution  of  the  Curies 
lose  its  importance  ? 

40.  Who  is  said  to  have  established  the  relation  of  Patroni  and  Cli- 
entes?  What  duties  did  the  Patron  owe  to  the  Client  ? what  the  Client 
to  th t Patron?  What  might  neither  do  to  the  other?  Was  the  con- 
nexion between  Patron  and  Client  hereditary?  Is  the  term  Client  sy- 
nonymous with  Plebeian  ? What  was  probably  the  origin  of  the  relation 
between  Patroni  and  Clientes?  41.  What  change  afterwards  took  place 
in  the  clientela  ? What  were  then  the  duties  of  the  Client  ? Give  an 
instance  of  a national  clientela.  What  connexion  existed  between 
emancipated  slaves  and  their  former  masters  ? 

42.  What  do  Livy  and  Dionysius  inform  us  respecting  the  Patricians? 
What  is  a more  probable  opinion  ? Plow  were  the  original  citizens  with 
full  rights  divided  ? On  this  supposition  what  would  the  Senate  seem  to 
be  ? Of  what  would  its  augmentation  be  a natural  consequence  ? 
43.  Was  c onnubium  permitted  between  the  Patricians  and  Plebeians  ? 
What  exclusive  privileges  did  they  enjoy?  From  what  time  were  the 
Plebeians  allowed  to  take  part  in  the  comitia  ? Were  they  ever  admitted 
,o  equal  rights  with  the  Patricians?  How  did  the  Patrician  families 
gradually  become  extinct?  In  the  time  of  the  Emperors,  how  were  they 
replaced  ? 

44.  To  whom  is  the  division  into  classes  and  centuries  ascribed  ? 
What  was  his  object?  What  advantage  had  the  rich  in  the  division  of 
classes?  Who  voted  first?  What  was  the  qualification  of  the  first 
class  ? how  many  centuries  did  it  contain  ? What  centuries  of  handi- 
craftsmen were  also  attached  to  it?  45,  46.  Give  the  qualifications  and 
number  of  centuries  of  the  second,  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  classes.  Where 
were  the  accensi,  cornicincs,  and  tubicines  placed?  Where  were  the 
still  poorer  placed?  From  what  were  they  generally  exempt?  Who 
broke  through  this  exemption  ? Give  their  names  and  number  of  centu- 
ries. How  was  each  class  divided  ? 

47.  Plow  did  Servius  Tullius  divide  the  city?  How  the  country? 
What  change  was  afterwards  introduced  ? After  the  expulsion  of  the 
Kings,  how  many  tribes  were  there  at  first  ? To  what  was  the  number 
gradually  augmented  ? Is  it  known  when  or  how  ? For  what  body  in 
the  state  was  the  division  into  tribes  especially  important?  Why? 
Which  were  the  most  respectable  tribes  ? 48.  Name  and  give  the  num- 

ber and  character  of  the  tribus  urbance  ? What  change  did  the  Censor 
Q.  Fabius  Maximus  Rullianus,  and,  subsequently  Tib.  Sempronius,  the 
father  of  the  Gracchi,  effect  "with  respect  to  the  tribus  rustica  and 
urbance  ? When  did  this  division  into  tribes  lose  its  importance  ? 

49.  When  did  the  word  plebs  begin  to  change  its  meaning?  Wha 
was  its  new  meaning  ? How  were  the  higher  ranks  then  denoted  ? 

50.  What  does  Livy  inform  us  with  respect  to  the  palres  ? When 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


183 


and  by  how  many  was  their  number  increased  ? Who  were  admitted 
into  the  Senate  by  Tullus  Hostilius?  Explain  patres  minorum  gentium. 
In  the  phrase  patres  et  conscripti  (for  which  patres  conscripti  was  after- 
wards used),  explain  the  meaning  of  et  conscripti.  Give  the  honorary 
terms  by  which  the  Senate  was  usually  spoken  of.  Is  the  assertion  that 
Sulla  increased  the  number  to  six  hundred  capable  of  proof?  What  limit 
did  its  number  probably  not  exceed  ? (see  note  5.)  51.  What  were  the 

qualifications  for  admission  into  the  Senate  ? Prove  that  even  at  an  early 
period  the  qualification  must  have  been  considerable.  52.  By  whom 
were  the  Senators  chosen  ? What  was  in  later  times  a qualification  for 
admission  into  the  Senate  ? Explain  atas  quastoria.  From  what  order 
were  the  Senators  at  first  chosen  exclusively  ? When  do  we  hear  of  ple- 
beian Senators  ? When  did  this  become  common  ? Which  was  the  lowest 
of  the  great  magistracies?  Name  the  insignia  of  the  Senators. 

53.  What  was  the  ordo  equester  at  its  first  institution  ? Explain  the 
celeres  whom  Romulus  appointed.  Which  of  the  Kings  is  said  to  have 
enlarged  the  centuries  of  the  Knights  ? By  whom  was  their  number 
doubled  ? What  addition  did  Servius  Tullius  make  ? Where  did  they 
vote  ? Explain  equus  publicus  and  as  equestre.  54.  At  a later  period 
how  did  the  equestrian  order  acquire  political  importance  ? How  did 
many  of  the  Knights  acquire  large  fortunes  ? In  later  times  what  was 
the  census  equester,  and  who  then  became  equites  ? What  Knights  did 
not  vote  in  the  ceniuria  equitum  ? State  the  insignia  of  the  Knights. 
What  were  their  epithets  of  honour  ? Explain  the  phrases  vivere  angusto 
clavo  c.ontentum,  and  sedere  in  quatuordecim.  (see  note  1.) 

55.  As  the  difference  between  Patricians  and  Plebeians  disappeared, 
what  new  classification  arose  ? Who  were  considered  nobiles  ? 5fi,  57. 
What  limited,  in  practice,  the  numbers  of  the  nobilitas  ? Explain  the  term 
homines  novi.  Name  some  homines  novi  who  obtained  the  highest  ho- 
nours. What  was  the  only  privilege  of  the  nobility  ? Explain  imagines. 
What  were  the  terms  for  the  conservative  party,  and  the  movement 
party  ? 

58.  On  what  was  the  exercise  of  the  most  important  political  rights 
always  dependent  ? With  regard  to  actual  participation  in  the  affairs  of 
government,  what  distinction  of  the  citizens  must  we  recognize  ? 

59.  Explain  civitas  sine  suffragio  and  a ger  publicus.  What  became 

of  the  ager  publicus  ? How  was  a conquered  territory  secured  ? What 
was  virtually  the  condition  of  the  coloni  ? What  did  they  retain  ? What 
did  this  arrangement  often  produce  ? 60.  What  is  the  difference  between 

colonia  civium  and  colonies  Latina  ? When  was  the  establishment  of 
any  colonia  civium  suspended?  When  revived?  At  a later  period 
to  what  country  were  colonia  civium  sent  ? Under  the  Gracchi  with 
what  object  were  colonia  civium  sent  out  ? When  and  why  were  military 
colonies  established  ? 61.  Describe  the  sending  out  of  colonies. 

62.  Explain  the  term  and  the  constitution  of  municipia.  Did  all  the 
municipia  possess  the  suffragiuin  ? When  were  all  the  Italian  towns 
made  municipia  cum  suffragio  ? When  were  there  also  municipia  in 
the  provinces? 

63.  Explain  the  prafectura.  Give  an  instance  of  a prafectura. 
By  whom  were  the  prafectura  governed  ? Did  they  ever  obtain  the 
svffragia  ? 

64.  Explain  ingenui  and  libertini. 


184 


QUESTIONS  TO 


65.  Explain  the  different  condition  of  conquered  tribes  in  the  earlier 
and  later  times.  Explain  the  term  peregrini.  What  was  the  condition 
of  those  peregrini  who  were  also  socii  ? How  was  their  relation  to  the 
state  generally  defined?  What  did  their  condition  finally  become  ? What 
were  the  principal  allied  states  which  retained  their  own  form  of  govern- 
ment ? 66.  What  was  the  condition  of  other  peregrini  ? What  were 

they  called  ? Did  the  peregrini  possess  the  jus  suffragii  and  honorum  ? 
To  what  were  they  liable  ? What  private  rights  did  they  not  possess  ? 
What  restriction  on  the  judicial  rights  of  peregrini  existed  in  the  older 
times  ? When  was  it  removed  ? Mention  some  legislative  enactments 
against  the  peregrini. 

67.  Among  the  socii,  who  were  the  most  remarkable?  How  is  the 
peculiarity  of  their  relation  to  the  Roman  state  expressed  ? When  and 
by  whom  was  Alba  taken  ? What  became  of  its  inhabitants  ? In  whose 
reign  did  Rome  become  the  head  of  the  Latin  confederation?  Were  the 
wars  between  Rome  and  the  Latins  renewed  ? how  long  were  they  con- 
tinued ? Did  they  obtain  equal  rights  ? Who  were  also  admitted  into 
this  confederation?  68.  When  was  the  whole  of  Latium  brought  under 
the  Roman  yoke?  What  was  the  condition  of  the  Latini?  Was 
their  connexion  with  Rome  different  from  that  of  the  other  socii  ? Under 
what  circumstances  might  they  be  admitted  to  the  freedom  of  the  city? 
For  what  purpose  did  the  Romans  frequently  employ  the  Latin  people? 
69.  When  were  the  Latins  and  their  colonies  admitted  to  the  freedom  of 
the  city  ? What  cities  soon  afterwards  received  the  privileges  which  the 
Latini  had  before  possessed?  When  was  this  arrangement  extended  to 
the  provinces?  From  the  time  of  Tiberius,  by  what  name  were  such 
libcrtini  expressed,  as  had  the  commercium  but  not  the  connubium  ? 
Might  they  be  admitted  to  the  full  privileges  of  citizenship?  Was  the 
constitution  of  the  Italian  other  socii  essentially  different  from  that  of  the 
Latins  ? What  was  the  j us  Italicum  ? What  its  principal  effects? 

70.  How  were  slaves  looked  upon  ? What  power  had  masters  over 
their  slaves?  Explain  ergastulum,  in  pistrinum  duri.  (see  note  3.)  71. 

Explain  demensum,  peculium,  vendi  sub  coronA,  de  lapide  emptum  esse. 
(see  note  4.)  What  misdeeds  or  misfortunes  rendered  a citizen  liable  to 
be  punished  by  enslavement?  Who  were  the  mangones  ? 

72.  In  what  three  ways  was  emancipation  effected  ? Explain  manu- 
mission per  vindictam.  (see  note  6.)  What  more  simple  forms  of  manu- 
mission were  afterwards  employed  ? On  what  did  the  Lex  LElia  Sentia 
make  the  right  of  manumission  dependent?  73.  Distinguish  between 
libertinus  and  libertus.  What  name  did  the  emancipated  slave  take  ? 
What  if  he  died  intestate  ? Did  he  enjoy  all  the  public  rights  of  a free- 
born citizen?  From  what  tribes  was  he  excluded?  from  what  honours 
and  offices?  Was  the  same  regulation  observed  with  regard  to  the  filii 
libertinorum  ? 

74.  In  the  best  days  of  the  Republic  how  was  political  power  divided  ? 
What  belonged  to  the  people?  State  the  powers  of  the  people.  75.  To 
what  body'did  the  executive  authority,  strictly  so  called,  with  its  over- 
whelming influence,  belong  ? By  whom  were  the  officers  of  state  chosen  ? 

76.  Explain  comiiium  (sing.)  Explain  concio  (or  contio).  (see  note 
7.)  How  many  Comitia  were  there  ? To  what  form  of  constitution  did 
the  curiata  belong?  Whom  did  the  centuriata  comprehend  ? To  whom 
did  the  tributa  belong  exclusively,  or,  in  a great  measure  ? When  did 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


185 


the  Comitia  become  turbulent  and  corrupt  ? Explain  Divisores,  inter - 
pretes , sequestres.  (see  note  8.)  When  did  they  lose  all  their  import- 
ance ? When  were  they  entirely  suppressed ? 

77.  Explain  dies  comitiales.  What  previous  notices  were  necessary? 
On  what  days  could  comitia  never  be  held  ? Explain  the  term  profiteri. 

78.  Within  what  space  of  time  must  the  business  of  the  Comitia  be 
transacted  ? What  caused  the  proceedings  to  be  adjourned  ? Explain 
morbus  comitialis.  (see  note  9.)  Explain  servare  de  ccelo.  Explain  the 
frequent  occurrence  in  Consular  edicts  of  “ Ne  quis  magistratus  minor 
de  ccelo  sermsse  velit.” 

79.  Where  were  the  Comitia  curiata  held?  When  did  they  gradually 
lose  their  importance  ? What  purpose  did  they  thenceforth  serve  ? In 
later  times  did  the  Curies  ever  assemble  ? Explain  Comitia  calata. 

80.  Where  werff  the  Comitia  centuriata  held  ? By  whom  ? What 
business  was  done  in  the  Comitia  centuriata  1 When  did  capital  offences 
cease  to  be  tried  in  the  Comitia  centuriata  ? 

81.  How  long  before  the  day  of  meeting  was  the  subject  for  discussion 

published  ? How  was  this  interval  employed  ? Explain  suadere,  dis- 
suadere  legem.  On  the  day  of  meeting,  what  preliminary  observances 
were  practised  ? Where  were  the  Comitia  generally  held  ? How  were 
they  opened  ? 82.  Explain  intercederc.  If  no  objection  were  made  on 

the  part  of  the  Tribunes,  and  no  religious  obstacle  existed,  in  what  form 
did  the  presiding  magistrate  put  the  vote  ? What  was  the  tenn  for  put- 
ting the  vote  ? Who  voted  first  ? Did  the  voting  usually  go  through 
all  the  classes  ? Was  the  great  preponderance  of  the  rich  ever  dimi- 
nished ? What  division  of  the  people  was  then  allowed  its  influence  ? 
Explain  centuria.  prarogativa.  83.  How  were  the  votes  given  ? Explain 
Uti  rogas,  and  Antiquo  ? Explain  pontes,  ovile.  Explain  the  manner 
of  voting.  How  was  the  law  adopted  by  the  assembly  registered  ? 

84.  What  were  the  regulations  common  to  both  sorts  of  Comitia? 

Could  the  decision  of  the  Augurs  reverse  a resolution  formally  adopted  by 
the  Comitia?  (see  note  5.)  How  were  their  resolutions  confirmed  in  the 
earlier  times  ? Explain  auctoritas  patrum.  What  did  the  lex  Publilia 
provide  ? / 

85.  Did  the  regulations  mentioned  in  the  preceding  paragraph  apply 
to  the  Comitia  tributa  ? Where  were  these  held  ? When  were  Comitia 
tributa  first  introduced  ? By  what  laws  were  they  legally  established  ? 
What  judicial  authority  did  they  exercise  until  the  laws  of  the  Twelve 
Tables  ? What  magistrates  were  chosen  at  these  Comitia  ? After  the 
lex  Domitia,  what  change  was  made  in  the  election  to  the  priesthood  ? 

86.  When  did  the  legislative  power  of  these  Comitia  become  great? 
What  powers  belonged  exclusively  to  these  Comitia  ? By  whom  were 
they  generally  held?  Could  they  be  prorogued  by  the1  obnuntiatio'?  Who 
seem  to  have  absented  themselves  from  the  Comitia  tributa  ? Was  legist 
lative  power  ever  withdrawn  from  them?  by  whom  restored? 

87.  What  was  the  province  of  the  Senate  ? In  extraordinary  emer- 
gencies, in  what  form  did  the  Senate  call  on  the  magistrates  to  act  as 
circumstances  might  require  ? When  did  the  Senate  lose  its  real  power? 
How  long  did  it  continue  to  exercise  some  legislative  and  administrative 
authority  ? 

88.  By  whom  was  the  Senate  convoked  in  early  times?  Where  did 
it  generally  assemble  1 Where  might  it  be  held  ? Mention  soire  temples 


186 


QUESTIONS  TO 


in  which  the  Senate  was  often  held.  What  is  the  phrase  for  giving  an 
audience  to  an  ambassador?  What  terms  denoted  regular  and  extraor- 
dinary meetings?  Between  what  hours  were  the  meetings  of  the  Senate 
held  ? 89.  Explain  referre  ad  senatum,  rogare  sententias,  sententias  di- 

cere,  verbo  senicntiani  dicere,  verbo  assentiri.  In  the  earlier  and  later  times 
(respectively)  who  were  first  called  on  ? who  next  ? Explain  egredi  rela- 
tionem.  What  is  the  phrase  for  speaking  against  time  ? 90.  What  was 

the  actual  voting  called  ? Explain  the  request  divide  sententiam.  What 
was  a decree  of  the  Senate  called  ? Where  were  such  decrees  kept,  and 
under  whose  custody?  What  was  necessary  to  make  a decree  of  the 
Senate  valid  ? How  might  those  who  absented  themselves  without  rea- 
sonable cause,  or  grossly  violated  standing  orders,  be  punished  ? What 
power  had  the  Tribunes  over  the  decrees  of  the  Senate  ? Distinguish 
between  Senatils  auctoritas  and  Sen, aids  consultum. 

91.  What  does  magistratus  signify  ? (see  note  7.)  In  ancient  times, 
who  possessed  the  supreme  executive  and  judicial  authority  ? What  royal 
privilege  was  afterwards  intrusted  to  the  Rex  sacrif  cuius  1 How  were 
Kings  supported  ? What  was  a part  of  the  royal  demesne  ? What 
magistrate  succeeded  the  King?  92.  What  magistrates  were  afterwards 
appointed  ? When  first  ? Explain  prorogare  imperium,  or  provinciam. 
From  what  practice  did  the  appointment  of  Proconsuls  and  Propraetors 
arise  ? 93.  Who  united  all  the  powers  of  the  state  in  his  own  person  ? 

In  the  time  of  the  Emperors,  did  the  great  officers  retain  their  names  and 
outward  distinctions  ? What  new  magistrates  were  then  appointed  ? 
What  powers  did  the  Prafeclus  TJrbi,  Prafectus  Pratorio,  and  Pree- 
fectus  AnnoncB  (respectively)  possess?  94.  From  whose  times  was  an 
entirely  new  organization  of  the  government  and  public  offices  intro- 
duced? How  were  the  great  state  officers  then  designated? 

95.  Who  were  the  ordinary  magistrates?  What  magistracies  were 
extraordinary?  What  ordinary  magistrates  enjoyed  nobilitas  or  official 
rank?  96.  If  we  compare  the  Roman  magistracy  with  that  of  more 
modern  states,  what  striking  difference  do  we  perceive  ? 97.  When  did 

the  administration  of  the  provinces  become  extremely  lucrative  ? What 
difference  was  there  between  the  ancient  and  most  modern  magistracies, 
as  to  their  time  of  office  ? What  office  was  held  for  more  than  a year? 
for  how  long  was  it  held  ? Mention  a third  distinction  with  regard  to 
the  qualifications  of  magistrates.  98.  In  matters  of  great  importance 
who  acted  as  a consilium  to  the  Consuls  ? to  the  provincial  officers  ? to 
the  general? 

99.  Till  whose  time  did  the  people  choose  their  own  magistrates? 
What  qualification  was  at  first  necessary  ? What  offices  could  not  be 
held  by  Patricians?  If  a Patrician  desired  to  fill  one  of  these  offices, 
what  was  necessary?  In  what  order  were  the  great  magistracies  sought 
for  and  held?  What  was  originally  a necessary  qualification  for  office? 
What  afterwards?  Give  the  ages  required  in  candidates  for  the  Quees- 
torship,  iEdileship,  Prsetorship,  Consulship.  Explain  Consul  suo  anno. 
100.  Explain  the  term  candidaii.  Explain  nomen  pro  fieri,  ambire,  am- 
bitus, prensare.  In  the  early  times,  when  did  the  magistrates  generally 
enter  on  their  office ? With  what  exception?  When  were  the  elected 
magistrates  termed  designati  ? What  were  the  forms  of  their  invest- 
ment? 101.  What  restrictions  were  there  as  to  the  number  of  offices  a 
person  could  hold,  or  the  frequency  with  which  he  might  hold  them  ? 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


187 


Were  any  of  these  regulations  ever  relaxed  ? How  old  was  Scipio  Afri- 
canus  minor  when  he  was  chosen  Consul  the  first  time  ? Mention  some 
other  remarkable  elections  to  the  high  offices. 

102.  What  is  the  general  term  for  magisterial  authority?  What 
rights  did  the  Roman  magistrates  possess  within  their  own  jurisdiction  ? 
What  magistrates  had  not  the  right  of  taking  the  auspices  ? Which  of 
the  high  magistrates  could  not  call  the  Senate  together  ? Which  of  the 
inferior  magistrates  could  assemble  the  Senate  ? How  could  the  magis- 
trates enforce  their  authority  ? 103.  Explain  vocatio  and  prehensio,  and 

state  what  magistrates  possessed  these  powers.  Is  it  certain  that  a magis- 
trate could  not  be  cited  before  a tribunal  during  the  continuance  of  his 
office  ? In  Catiline’s  conspiracy,  what  step  was  Lentulus  compelled  to 
take  previously  to  his  trial  ? If  the  auspices  had  not  been  correctly  taken, 
■what  might  a magistrate  do?  Explain  imperium.  104.  How  was  the 
imperium  committed  to  magistrates  ? By  whom  could  it  not  be  exer- 
cised? If  a pro-magistrate  who  enjoyed  the  imperium  in  one  of  the 
provinces  desired  to  have  a triumph  at  Rome,  what  was  requisite  ? 
What  security  existed  against  malversation  in  office  ? What  were  the 
insignia  of  the  higher  magistrates  ? What  was  the  Sella  curulis  ? (see 
note  3.)  What  rank  did  the  ex-magistrates  enjoy?  Give  their  names. 

N 105.  What  seems  to  have  been  the  original  name  of  the  Consuls? 
Over  what  magistrates  could  the  Consuls  not  exercise  authority  ? What 
was  named  from  the  Consuls  ? State  generally  the  power  of  the  Consuls. 
When  did  they  cease  to  administer  justice  in  ordinary  cases  ? In  time  of 
war,  what  power  did  they  exercise  ? If  there  were  only  one  war,  who 
usually  commanded  the  armies?  If  there  were  more  than  one,  how  was 
it  settled  which  Consul  should  command  each  army  ? Explain  comparatio. 
Explain  prorogate  imperium.  106.  In  the  latter  days  of  the  Republic, 
when  did  the  Consuls  command  the  army  ? Explain  Consul  subrogatus, 
svffectus.  What  was  the  distinctive  mark  of  the  consular  dignity? 
When  had  each  Consul  the  fasces  ? Explain  the  term  Consul  Major. 
(see  note  4 ) When  did  the  Consulship  lose  its  importance  ? After  the 
partition  of  the  empire,  was  the  number  of  the  consuls  doubled  ? What 
was  done  ? What  was  the  last  occasion  on  which  a private  individual 
filled  the  office  of  Consul  ? 107.  How  often  was  the  succession  of  Con- 

suls interrupted  ? What  was  the  first  interruption  ? For  what  purpose  ? 
What  was  the  second  interruption?  Account  for  it.  What  magistrates 
were  created  ? Who  were  eligible  to  the  office  ? How  long  did  the 
Tribuni  Mililum  consulari  potestate  last  ? What  law  provided  that  one 
of  the  Consuls  should  be  chosen  from  the  Plebeians?  What  was  the 
number  of  the  Tribuni  Militum  consulari  potestate  ? 

108.  How  must  the  Praetorship  be  viewed?  When  did  the  Praetor- 
ship  become  a separate  magistracy  ? Show  how  closely  this  magistracy 
resembled  the  Consulship.  Was  the  Praetorship  ever  filled  by  Consulates  ? 
109.  What  was  the  especial  province  of  the  Praetor?  Explain  the  mean- 
ing of  the  Traitor’s  Edict.  Explain  judiccs  dare.  In  appointing  to  the 
Praetorship,  was  regard  had  to  the  legal  knowledge  of  the  candidate  ? 
Of  what  games  had  the  Praetor  the  management  ? Explain  Praetor  ur- 
banus,  and  Praetor  peregrinus.  When  did  this  division  of  the  Praetor- 
ship begin  ? When  were  the  duties  of  both  offices  discharged  by  the 
Praetor  urbanus?  110.  When  was  the  number  of  Praetors  raised  to 
four?  when  to  six?  When  the  qucestiones  pcrpetuae  (182)  were  intro- 


i88 


QUESTIONS  TO 


duced,  when  did  the  Prtetors  go  to  their  provinces?  ( Ans . Not  till  after 
their  year  of  office  ; they  then  commanded  in  the  provinces  as  Proprce- 
iors.)  Were  the  judices  quastionis  magistrates?  In  what  period  were 
such  judges  appointed  ? (see  note  7.)  What  was  at  last  their  number? 
Under  the  Emperors,  to  what  was  this  office  restricted  ? Had  the  Praetor 
any  lictors? 

111.  By  the  constitution  of  Servius  Tullius,  how  often  was  the 
supreme  magistrate  required  to  hold  a muster  of  the  citizens?  for  what 
purposes  ? When  and  why  were  the  two  Censors  created  ? How  long 
did  they  continue  in  office?  What  prevented  the  census  from  being 
always  held  within  the  time  appointed  by  law  ? What  did  the  Censor 
not  possess  ? What  rights  did  he  not  possess  ? In  later  times,  by  whom 
was  this  office  filled  exclusively  ? 1 12.  Where  was  the  quinquennial 

census  held  ? Explain  the  term  incc.nsus.  What  was  each  citizen  obliged 
to  do  ? Of  what  was  he  not  obliged  to  render  an  account  ? Were  debts 
taken  into  the  account?  Was  any  tax  then  imposed?  '113.  Explain 
censura  morum.  What  penalty  might  the  Censor  inflict  ? What  was 
the  proper  term  to  denote  this?  on  whom  was  it  usually  inflicted?  How 
did  the  Censor  punish  a Senator  ? a Knight  ? Explain  tribu  moveri, 
and  in  Caeritum  tabulas  referri.  Explain  mrarium  facere.  114.  When 
were  all  the  citizens  no  longer  personally  enrolled  at  Rome  ? Might  one 
Censor  reverse  the  judgments  of  the  other  ? Might  the  Censors  of  the 
following  lustrum  remove  the  ignominia  inflicted  by  their  predecessors? 
Explain  the  term  lustrum,  (see  note  3).  If  one  of  them  died,  what  was 
his  colleague  obliged  to  do?  115.  What  was  an  especial  branch  of  the 
Censor’s  duty  ? Explain  the  term  publicani.  When  did  the  Censors 
cease  to  be  elected  by  the  people  ? Under  the  Emperors,  who  sometimes 
discharged  the  office  ? 

116.  When  were  the  two  Plebeian  iEdiles  first  created  ? When  were 
two  Curule  iEdileships  added  ? For  what  purpose  ? Were  they  held  by 
Patricians  or  Plebeians?  What  were  the  duties  of  the  iEdiles?  117. 
Was  the  difference  between  the  Plebeian  and  Curule  iEdiles  an  im- 
portant one?  What  insignia  might  the  Curule  iEdiles  bear?  When 
and  how  did  the  office  of  iEdile  become  very  expensive  ? What  games 
were  superintended  by  the  iEdiles?  What  iEdiles  did  Ctesar  add  ? 

1 18.  Is  the  origin  of  the  Quaestorship  known  ? By  whom  were  the 
Quaestors  chosen  at  first  ? When  did  this  arrangement  cease,  and  who 
then  elected  them?  Was  the  office  originally  patrician  or  plebeian? 
Which  of  the  Quczstors  accompanied  the  Consuls  in  their  campaigns  ? 
How  many  Qucestors  were  there  originally  ? When  and  why  were  four 
more  Quaestors  appointed  ? What  was  the  greatest  number  of  Quaestors 
afterwards?  119.  What  were  the  duties  of  the  city  Quaestors  ? What 
of  the  provincial  Quaestors  ? How  were  their  provinces  assigned  to  them 
at  a later  period?  To  what  was  the  Quaestorship  the  first  step?  What 
right  did  it  give  its  holder  ? What  body  was  latterly  in  a great  measure 
filled  up  from  the  Quaestors?  Did  the  office  continue  under  the  empire? 
120.  Who  were  the  Tribuni  eerarii  ? When  had  this  office  disappeared  ? 
Was  the  name  ever  revived?  was  the  office  the  same? 

121.  On  what  occasion  was  the  Tnbuneship  of  the  People  created? 
How  was  the  person  of  the  Tribune  protected  ? What  was  the  number 
of  the  Tribunes  at  first?  What  afterwards?  From  whom  were  they 
chosen  ? Had  the  Tribunes  any  right  of  co-optation,  i.  e.  of  filling  up 


MANUAL  OP  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


189 


vacancies  in  their  own  body  ? Were  they  magistrates  ? What  was  their 
single  duty  ? Explain  intercessio.  122.  What  powers  did  they  soon 
arrogate  to  themselves  ? When  the  distinction  between  Patricians  and 
Plebeians  lost  its  political  importance,  what  was  the  object  of  the  inter- 
cessio 7 How  was  this  intercessio  sometimes  enforced  ? What  right 
had  the  Tribunes  with  reference  to  the  Senate  ? Could  one  Tribune 
nul  ify  the  decisions  of  the  rest  by  his  intercessio  ? What  means  were 
there  of  rendering  the  intercessio  of  the  Tribunes  inoperative  ? 123. 

What  did  Tiberius  Gracchus  venture  to  propose  to  the  people  ? How 
far  from  the  city  did  a Tribune’s  authority  extend  ? How  was  a Tribune’s 
absence  from  Rome  restricted  ? Who  were  disqualified  for  the  Tribunate  ? 
When  did  great  abuses  in  the  intercessio  begin  to  occur  ? How  did  Sulla 
curtail  the  powers  of  the  Tribunate  ? When  were  these  restrictions  re- 
moved ? Under  Augustus,  who  received  the  Tribunicia  potestas  ? Who 
bore  this  office  under  the  succeeding  Emperors'? 

124.  Who  were  the  Triumviri  capitales?  Explain  the  term  or  title 
Triumviri  monelales,  or  iii  Viri  AAAFF.  Who  were  the  Curatores 
viaruin  ? Who  were  the  Decemviri  litibus  judicandis  ? What  were 
these  officers  called  collectively  ? Who  were  the  Triumviri  nocturni  ? 

^125.  When  was  a Dictator  chosen  for  the  first  time ? On  what  occa- 
sion? Explain  dictatorem  dicere.  For  what  purposes  were  Dictators 
appointed  ? At  what  Comitia  were  they  originally  elected  ? At  a later 
period,  by  whom  does  the  Dictator  seem  to  have  been  chosen?  126.  Who 
was  his  assistant  or  second  in  command  ? what  rank  belonged  to  him  ? 
What  power  did  the  Dictator  originally  possess?  Was  there  any  excep- 
tion to  the  suspension  of  the  other  offices  ? How  long  did  the  Dictator- 
ship last  ? Was  the  office  always  patrician?  Was  its  power  ever  cir- 
cumscribed ? At  the  end  of  the  Republican  period,  who  were  invested 
with  a perpetual  Dictatorship  ? 127.  On  the  death  of  a King,  how  was 

the  interregnum  managed  ? In  the  time  of  the  Republic,  when  was  this 
practice  revived  ? Give  an  instance  of  such  revival.  From  whom  was 
the  Interrex  chosen  ? When  do  we  again  find  Interreges  ? 128.  Who 

was  the  Prafectus  urbi  or  Custos  urbis  ? For  what  purpose  was  such 
an  officer  retained  in  the  time  of  the  Republic  ? By  whom  were  the 
official  duties  of  the  Consul  discharged  in  such  absences  ? What  was  the 
office  of  the  Prafectus  urbi  under  Augustus? 

129.  Who  were  the  Scribes?  How  were  they  divided?  How  were 
they  distributed  among  the  magistrates  ? How  were  the  Scribce  originally 
looked  upon  ? how  afterwards  ? 130.  Give  the  names  of  the  servants  or 

official  attendants  on  magistrates. 

131.  Who  were  the  Preefecti  annonce  ? Give  the  names  of  some. 

132.  Distinguish  between  jus  publicum  and  jus  privatum.  How  was 
jus  privatum  subdivided  ? 

133.  To  what  did  the  jus  civile  owe  its  origin?  How  was  the  jus 

civile  augmented?  By  whom  were  laws  drawn  up?  By  whom  ap- 
proved ? Explain  jus  honorarium.  What  did  the  Prcetor  urbanus  do 
when  he  entered  on  his  office  ? 134.  How  long  did  the  Praetor's  Edict 

continue  in  force?  Was  the  effect  of  the  Praetor's  Edict  quite  lost  on  his 
quitting  office  ? How  must  we  look  on  the  Prastorial  edicts  ? Explain 
the  terms  res  judicata,  responsa.  In  the  time  of  the  Emperors,  what 
official  jurists  were  publicly  appointed  ? 

135.  From  the  time  of  Augustus,  what  superseded  the  edicts  of  the 


190 


QUESTIONS  TO 


Praetors?  What  collections  of  royal  ordinances  were  made?  .136.  Ex 
plain  Codex,  Digcstas,  or  Pandccl.ce,  Instiiutiones.  What  was  the  Codex 
Repctitce  Frailectionis?  What  the  Novella? 

137.  In  both  publico,  and  privata  judicia,  what  is  a peculiarity  of 
Roman  law  ? Who  decided  the  legal  question  ? who  the  question  of 
fact  ? How  far  did  the  judices  correspond  to  our  notion  of  judges  ? 
What  term  denoted  the  proceedings  before  the  magistrate  ? what  those 
before  the  judices  ? Were  the  magistrate  and  the  judges  professed  law- 
yers ? Show  that  legal  knowledge,  in  the  time  of  the  Republic,  was  more 
widely  diffused  than  in  our  day.  (see  note  5.) 

138.  In  whose  hands  was  the  administration  of  justice  placed  at  first? 

In  whose  at  a lateffperiod ? What  did  the  Praetor  settle?  After  the  pre- 
liminary proceedings  [in  jure]  what  did  he  leave  to  the  decision  of  the 
judices?  Who  provided  that  the  sentence  of  the  judices  should  be  car- 
ried into  effect  ? What  was  the  collective  name  for  the  exercise  of  the 
Praetor’s  judicial  functions  ? Explain  the  words  do,  dico,  addico,  as  in- 
dicating the  Praetor’s  functions.  Where  did  he  preside  ? With  what  was 
the  Prcetor  urbanus  occupied  ? 139.  With  what  were  the  other  Praetors 

charged  ? In  the  municipal  towns  and  colonies,  how  was  justice  admi- 
nistered ? In  the  provinces,  who  exercised  jurisdiction  ? In  the  days  of 
the  Empire,  who  was  the  chief  magistrate  ? Who  were  under  him  ? 
When  did  the  difference  between  jus  and  judicium,  cease?  Explain  that 
distinction. 

140.  To  whom  did  the  investigation  of  the  factum,  and  the  judicial 
decision  consequent  on  such  investigation  belong  ? How  and  by  whom 
were  the  judices  chosen?  How  were  they  divided?  (Into  decuri®)) 
What  were  the  whole  body  qf  judices  termed  ? (Judices  select!,}  Who 
were  the  Recuperatores  ? i(From  the  name  one  would  suppose  them  to 
be  the  judges  in  causes  where  property  or  damages  were  to  be  recovered, 
cf.  170.  The  term  occurs  as  strongly  opposed  to  a single  judge ; from 
which  it  follows  that,  there  were  always  several  Recuperatores.)  Who 
were  the  Arbitri  ? ,(A  judge  .was  probably  called  Arbiter,  when  he  was 

to  deteimine  the  cause  on  principles  of  equity : an  arbitrium  was  an 
actio  bonce  fidei,  to  be  determined  ex  aequo  et  bono : nor  was  a definite 
amount  claimed  as  in.  a judicium.1)  Was  an  Arbiter  always  appointed 
by  the  Pr®tor  ? /(No:  the  parties  might  choose  a private  Arbiter,  who 
was  called  Arbiter  honorarius  or  disceptator  domes ticus.)  From  whom 
were  the  judges  originally  chosen?  (From  the  Senate:)  When  were 
the  judicia  given  to  the  Equites?  (From  the  time  of  C.  Gjacchus.) 
Were  they  ever  (and  if  so  when)  restored  to  the  Senate?  (Yes:  in 
Sulla’s  time.)  Was  any  other  change  made?  (Yes':!,  in  b.  c.  70,  they 
were  divided  between  the  Senators,  Knights,  and  Tribuni  cerarii.)  Who 
were  the  Tribuni  cerarii?  (see  note  7.)  Did  the  leges  judiciaries  which 
enacted  these  changes  in  the  judicial  body,  relate  to  both  publica  and 
privata  judicia  ? ; (No;  probably  only  to  the  publica  judicia,.2)  What 
change  did  C®sar  make?  (He  took  the  judicia  from  the  Tribuni  cerarii.) 
In  the  municipal  towns  and  provinces,  how  were  the  judicial  functions 


1 Gajus  4,  § 105,  Recuperatoria  et  qu®  sub  uno  judice,  &c. : § 109, 
Si  Rom®  aput  recuperatores  agamus,  vel  aput  unum  judicem,  &c. 

2 See  Diet.  Antiqq.  p.  532  : so  also  Walter,  and  Osenbrttggen  in  hi? 
review  of  this  work. 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTKiUITIES. 


191 


discharged  ? 141.  Of  what  court  do  we  read  besides  the  court  of  tne 

Praetor  ? What  was  properly  the  number  of  the  judges  ? Is  the  nature 
of  the  Decemviral  court  (. Decemviri  litibus  judicandis)  known? 

142.  What  were  the  counsel  called  ? Were  they  necessarily  accom- 
plished Jurists  ? What  did  the  lex  Cincia  de  donis  et  muneribus  enact '? 
Was  any  change  made  at  a later  period  ? Who  were  the  Advocati  ? 

143.  Of  what  rank  (originally)  were  the  Jurisconsulti  or  prudentes  ? 
Whom,  did  they  direct]  What  were  the  terms  by  which  their  legal 
opinions  were  denoted  ? Mention  one  of  the  most  renowned  Jurists. 
When  did  he  flourish?  Mention  some  other  celebrated  Jurists.  (Ulpia- 
nus,  Paulus,  Papinianus.) 

144.  What  was  the  chief  qualification  for  the  enjoyment  of  civil 
rights  ? Who  alone  had  the  cotmubium  and  commercium  ? Who  were 
excluded  from  a participation  in  these  privileges?  What  was  another 
qualification  for  the  full  exercise  of  civil  rights  ? What  was  necessary 
before  any  citizen  could  engage  in  any  legal  process  ? Were  any  regu- 
lations afterwards  adopted  for  the  benefit  of  minors? 

145.  How  are  private  rights  divided  by  Jurists?  Distinguish  between 

possessio  and  dominium.  How  was  dominium  subdivided  ? What  were 
res  mancipi?  Was  the  acquisition  of  ownership  accompanied  by  legal 
forms  ? Explain  mancipatio.  What  is  the  contrary  term  to  res  man- 
cipi? (see  note  9.)  146.  In  what  ceremonies  besides  those  relating  to  the 

acquisition  of  property,  did  a mancipatio  take  place  ? What  was  a simi- 
lar legal  process  called?  Explain  in  jure  cessio.  Explain  usucapio. 
What  period  established  prescription  for  immoveable  property?  What 
for  other  property?  Were  the  regulations  respecting  prescription  after- 
wards altered  1 

147.  Define  obligatio.  According  -to  the  Roman  Jurists,  to  what  did 
all  obligatory  rights  owe  their  origin  ] Between  whom  alone  could  con- 
tracts be  entered,  by  the  old  strict  Roman  law  ? At  a later  period  who 
also  could  enter  into  contracts  ? 148.  Name  the  principal  forms  for  con- 

tracts. Explain  nexus.  By  the  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables,  what  was 
the  condition  of  debtors  who  bound  themselves  by  nexus  ? What  law 
exempted  the  person  of  the  debtor  from  imprisonment  in  chains  ? When 
was  it  passed  ? Was  it  always  observed  ? Explain  stipulatio.  To  what 
had  written  contracts  especial  reference  ? 149.  Explain  nomina  facere 

(scribere,  perscribere.)  How  were  payments  frequently  made?  How 
were  obligations  incurred  in  the  provinces] 

150.  To  what  crimes  did  obligations  ex  delictis  extend?  Explain 
furtum  manifestum.  By  the  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables,  how  might, 
a thief  taken  in  the  act  be  punished  ? By  the  praetorian  law,  what  was 
enjoined  in  cases  of  furtum  manifestum?  What  in  cases  of  furtum  nee 
manifestum  ? What  was  enforced  in  cases  of  actual  personal  injury, 
injuria,  unless  ihe  matter  was  settled  by  compromise  ? For  smaller 
offences  of  this  description,  what  penalty  was  inflicted  ? By  the  praeto- 
rian law,  what  was  substituted  for  the  talio?  151.  Define  damnum. 
How  was  it  atoned  for  ? When  violations  of  (landed)  property  became 
common  in  the  Civil  War,  what  penalty  was  imposed  ? 

152.  What  did  a malrimonium  justum  presuppose  on  both  sides? 
Define  cotmubium.  Name  the  strict  forms  of  a matrimonium  justum. 
Describe  confarreatio,  coemplio,  usus.  153.  By  what  terms  was  the 
wife's  subjection  to  her  husband  denoted  ? Did  the  wife  ever  remain  sub- 


192 


QUESTIONS  TO 


ject  to  her  father  or  guardian,  or  at  her  own  disposal?  When?  Did 
the  strict  forms  of  a matrimonium  become  more  or  less  common  in  later 
times?  Explain  matrimonium  injuslum • What  did  a matrimonium  in- 
itiation not  confer  on  the  children?  on  the  father? 

154.  Was  bigamy  allowed?  Were  there  any  (and  if  so,  what)  pro- 
hibited degrees ? By  what  was  the  marriage  usually  preceded?  Might 
a betrothal  be  cancelled  ? Who  usually  gave  a dowry  to  the  bride  ? 
Might  the  marriage  ever  be  annulled  ? when  ? What  are  the  terms  for 
divorce,  and  to  divorce  a wife  ? Explain  repudium.  155.  By  what  form 
were  marriages  by  confarreation  (152)  dissolved  ? Did  divorces  gradually 
become  more  or  less  common  ? By  whom  was  the  sanctity  of  marriage 
enforced  ? When  and  why  was  the  lex  Poppcca  passed  ? 

156.  Explain  patria  potestas.  When  was  the  form  of  adoption  called 
arrogatio  used  ? Where  did  it  take  place  ? In  whose  presence  ? What 
powers  did  the  father  possess  over  his  children  ? 157.  Could  a son  in 

patria  potestate  acquire  property  ? Was  the  father  obliged  to  discharge 
debts  contracted  by  his  children  ? Explain  peculium.  By  what  was  the 
parental  authority  forfeited  ? How  did  adoption  differ  from  arrogation  ? 
In  whose  presence  was  it  concluded  ? by  what  acts  ? of  what  other  modes 
of  adoption  do  we  read  ? 

158.  Distinguish  between  agnatio,  cognatio,  affinitas. 

159.  What  was  understood  by  the  term  gentes  in  the  most  ancient 
times?  To  such  a gens,  who  were  attached  as  subordinate  members? 
Who  alone  claimed  the  term  gens  ? When  did  questions  begin  to  arise 
respecting  the  right  of  genlilitas  ? 

i 160.  How  was  the  guardianship  of  minors,  or  the  administration  of 
their  property  settled  ? How  was  an  unfaithful  guardian  punished  by  the 
Twelve  Tables ? How  was  the  guardianship  of  viduai  settled?  Ex- 
plain turpe  judicium  tutelce.  Explain  the  extent  of  the  term  viduai. 
161.  What  women  might  manage  their  own  property  ? When  did  they 
necessarily  require,  the  auctoritas  of  a guardian  ? For  whom  were  cura- 
tores  sometimes  appointed  on  the  application  of  the  family?  What  was 
their  office?  Who  appointed  a curator  for  minors? 

162.  By  the  old  strict  law,  who  did  and  who  did  not  possess  the  full 
right  of  making  a will  ? Who  could  not  be  named  as  an  heir  ? By  the 
lex  Voconia,  what  class  of  persons  could  not  make  a woman  their  sole 
heir?  What  limit  was  there  to  the  amount  of  legacies  that  could  be  left 
by  such  persons  to  women?  163.  In  the  time  of  Augustus,  who  were 
excluded  from  the  right  of  inheritance  ? Name  and  explain  the  three 
descriptions  of  will.  Which  description  was  retained  the  longest?  Ex- 
. plain  hares  ex  asse,  hceres  ex  dodrante,  Imres  ex  besse,  &c.  164.  When 

was  a testament  invalid  ? If  a man  died  intestate,  who  were  his  natural 
heirs  ? In  default  of  such,  who  inherited  ? To  whom  did  the  inherit- 
ance of  a freedman,  who  left  no  natural  heirs,  fall? 

165.  What  provisions  of  the  civil  law  of  inheritance  were  exceedingly 
unjust  ? By  what  were  these  severe  clauses  afterwards  modified  ? What 
did  the  pratorian  rule  of  succession  not  constitute?  Was  the  prtetorian 
testament  in  writing  ? Against  what  was  it  not  valid  ? Explain  bonorum 
possessio  contra  tabulas.  When  and  by  whom  was  this  granted?  Ex- 
plain bonorum  possessio  secundum  tabulas. 

166.  Explain  the  difference  between  proceedings  in  jure,  and  proceed- 
ings in  judicio.  What  were  the  most  ancient  forms  of  legal  process? 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


. 193 


Who  only  could  avail  themselves  of  the  legis  actiones  ? What  did  they 
necessarily  require  ? Explain  actor,  petitor,  reus.  What  involved  the 
loss  of  the  suit  ? Among  the  .various  forms,  name  the  most  important, 
and  that  which  was  longest  retained.  167.  In  pleas  in  rem,  what  wa« 
often  added  to  the  legis  actio  Sacramento  ? Explain  the  term  vindicicE. 

In  the  case. of  immoveable  property,  or  of  objects  which  could  not  be 
brought  whole  into  court,  how  was  this  form  managed  ? 

168.  What  were  afterwards  introduced  instead  of  the  old  symbolic 
forms?  What  was  the  general  effect  of  the  introduction  of  actiones? 
169.  With  whom  did  the  choice  of  the  actio  rest  ? What  was  the  con- 
sequence of  an  erroneous  choice  ? Explain  plus  petere.  If  the  cause 
was  not  thus  rejected,  what  formula  did  the  plaintiff  receive?  170. 
Name  the  parts  of  this  formula.  Were  all  these  parts  found  in  every 
formula?  What  was  stated  in  both  the  pleadings  and  the  judgment  in 
every  actio  which  sought  to  recover  from  the  defendant?  171.  Explain 
the  term  prascriptiones  or  exceptiones.'  Give  instances  of  a praescriplio  ; 
of  an  exceptio.  To  whom  did  the  investigation  of  the  fact  on  which  the 
exception  was  founded  belong? 

A 172.  How  did  the  proceedings  in  jure  commence  ? In  ancient  times, 
on  what  was  the  compulsory  force  of  an  in  jus  vocatio  dependent?  Ex- 
plain vadimonium.  Explain  vadimonium  promittere , vadari,  vadimoni- 
um  sistere,  vadimonium  desererc.  (see  note  7.)  173.  What  was  done 

when  the  magistrate  and  counsel  were  instructed  by  these  preliminary 
proceedings  concerning  the  character  of  the  actio  which  the  plaintiff  de- 
sired to  adopt  ? What  officer  was  named  in  the.  writ?  Who  seems  to 
have  had  the  right  of  proposing  the  judex  ? Explain  the  form  iniquum 
ejero.  If  several  judges  were  appointed,  with  what  did  the  proceedings 
injure  conclude?  (In  any  action  for  recovery ) what  were  they  called? 

174.  Must  the  proceedings  in  judicio  be  concluded  in  one  day?  How  . 
was  the  case  to  be  proved?  Distinguish  between  tabula  juslat,  or  codices 
accepti  et  expensi,  and  adversaria,  (see  note  9.)  What  change  did  the 
process  by  formula  introduce  with  respect  to  the  plaintiff’s  personal  ap- 
pearance ? Explain  and  distinguish  between  cognitores  and  procuratores. 
At  the  close  of  the  proceedings,  what  did  the  judge  do?  By  what  form 
of  words  did  he  decline  to  pronounce  sentence?  175.  Were  there  any 
means  of  reversing  an  unjust  sentence  ? What  means  ? By  what  was 
the  operation  of  the  sentence  sometimes  enforced  ? Mention  some  de- 
scriptions of  condemnation  which  were  attended  with  infamy.  What  did 
non-appearance  occasion  ? Mention  some  modes  of  discouraging  un- 
necessary or  pettifogging  actions.  What  followed  if  the  sentence  were 
not  obeyed  ? 

176.  Explain  the  interdicta  of  the  Praetor. 

177.  Explain  judicia  publica.  By  whom  were  they  originally  con- 

ducted ? After  the  expulsion  of  the  Kings,  who  presided  over  these 
courts  ? How  were  capital  offenders  tried  ? After  the  introduction  of 
the  Tribuneship,  what  class  of  offenders  were  sometimes  summoned  by 
their  Tribunes  before  the  Comitia  tributa  ? Give  instances.  178.  Ac- 
cording to  the  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables,  where  only  might  capital 
offences  be  tried  ? What  power  did  the  Comitia  tributa  still  retain  ? 
When  were  the  qurestiones  perpctiue  introduced  ? What  causes  came 
unuer  the  qucesliones  perpetuce  ? ( De  repetundis,  majestatis,  de  sica- 

riis  et  venejicis,  de  parricidis,  peculates,  ambit  As,  de  numis  adulterinis, 

9 


194 


QUliSlIONS  ro 


de  falsis,  or  testamentaria : de  vi  publica.  Diet.  Antiqq.)  Did  the 
judex  quastionis  manage  the  proceedings  in  jure,  or  those  in  judicio  ? 

( Bojescn  says  the  proceedings  in  jure  : but  this  seems  incorrect,  thus  C. 
pro  Cluent.  54 : jubet  lex  ea  . . . judicem  quaistionis  . . . cum  Us  ju- 
dicibus,  qui  ei  obvenerint  . . . queer  ere  de  veneno,  from  which  it  would 
seem  that  the  judex  quastionis  presided  at  the  trial,  as  president  of  a 
body  of  judges  chosen  by  lot.3)  By  whom  were  the  queestiones  perpetucB 
originally  conducted?  by  whom  afterwards?  Did  the  immediate  judi- 
cial authority  of  the  people  now  increase  or  decrease  ? 179.  Had  the 

Senate  any  judicial  authority,  strictly  speaking,  over  the  persons  of  citi- 
zens? Did  the  Emperors  invest  the  Senate  with  any  judicial  authority? 
What  officer  had  also  a criminal  jurisdiction  in  the  times  of  the  Empire  ? 
During  the  Republic,  by  whom  was  the  criminal  jurisdiction,  beyond  the 
walls  of  the  city,  exercised?  What  exception  was  there  to  this? 

180.  Who  only  could  appear  before  the  popular  tribunals  as  accu- 
satores  ? How  was  sentence  passed  ? Who  might  act  as  prosecutor 
in  the  Prastor’s  court  ? When  was  the  office  of  accuser  respectable  ? Ex- 
plain the  terms  divinatio,  subscriptores.  181.  How  did  the  prosecutor 
commence  his  proceedings  ? Explain  delalio  nominis,  calumnia,  recep- 
tio  nominis.  Whence  were  the  judges  selected  ? Did  their  number  vary  ? 
What  number  did  it  usually  exceed  ? Who  had  the  right  of  challenge, 
against  the  judices  ? How  was  the  trial  itself  latterly  divided  ? 182. 

How  did  the  lex  Julia  limit  the  principle  that  in  criminal  proceedings 
persons  might  be  compelled  to  bear  witness?  By  what  were  the  quees- 
tiones  of  slaves  accompanied  ? In  what  causes  was  it  at  all  events  irre- 
gular to  torture  the  slaves  of  the  accused?  Explain  vestes  sordidee. 
Was  the  number  of  defenders  ever  limited  ? Explain  condemnatio,  abso- 
lutio,  ampliatio.  On  what  were  the  votes  inscribed?  Plow  was  the 
carrying  of  the  sentence  into  effect  insured  ? What  means  were  there  of 
protection  against  unjust  sentences  ? 

183.  What  offences  generally  formed  the  subject  of  criminal  proceed- 
ings in  the  judicia  publica  ? Explain  crimen  majestalis,  perduellionis, 
repetundarum.  What  change  took  place  with  reference  to  causes  repe- 
tundarum  ? When  and  where  was  a governor  impeached  ? How  were 
those  who  prosecuted  such  a magistrate  to  conviction,  rewarded  ? Ex- 
plain peculatus,  ambitus,  vis,  falsum,  sacrilegium,  plagium. 

184.  What  were  the  punishments  in  the  days  of  the  Republic?  Was 
corporal  punishment  ever  abolished?  How  was  death  generally  inflicted  ? 
What  were  the  more  ancient  modes  ? For  parricidium,  what  was  the 
punishment  ? Plow  were  Catiline’s  accomplices  punished  ? How  was 
the  punishment  of  exile  rendered  effective  ? Whither  did  banished  persons 
usually  retire?  185.  What  were  the  usual  punishments  for  the  more 
grievous  offences  against  the  state  ? How  were  criminals  frequently 
punished  under  the  Emperors?  Explain  deportatio,relegatio.  To  what 
labour  were  criminals  also  condemned  ? 

186.  What  treaty  do  we  hear  of  in  very  early  days  of  the  Republic  ? 
Plow  was  the  negotiation  of  treaties  conducted  ? What  privilege  did 


3 Madvig,  in  an  essay  on  the  judex  quaistionis , maintains  that  this 
officer  presided  over  such  queestiones  perpetuce  as  the  Praetors  could  not 
preside  over  themselves,  and  that  the  number  of  these  queestiones  made  it 
necessary  that  such  judices  queestionis  should  be  appointed. 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


195 


Ambassadors  enjoy?  On  what  conditions?  How  were  these  treated 
who  miscond  icted  themselves  towards  a foreign  Ambassador  ? 

^187.  What  step  was  taken  wrhen  any  injury  was  received  from  a 
foreign  nation?  What  was  the  effect  of  a declaration  of  war  by  the 
Fetiales?  188.  Were  these  rights  always  enforced?  By  whom  was 
the  conclusion  of  peace  celebrated  ? Explain  the  term  includes.  Was  c 
sponsio  concluded  by  the  commanders  always  ratified  by  the  state  ? If 
such  a sponsio  was ~>not  ratified,  how  was  the  general  who  concluded  it 
treated  ? What  more  favourable  treatment  did  conquered  nations  some- 
times experience  ? 

189.  From  what  expenses  was  the  Roman  Republic  exempt?  What 
were  the  heaviest  charges  ? When  was  pay  first  decreed  to  the  army  ? 

190.  With  what  duty  was  the  Exchequer  charged  in  seasons  of  scarcity? 
What  regulation,  in  conjunction  with  the  large  amount  of  private  dona- 
tions, attracted  a crowd  of  broken-down  or  idle  persons  to  Rome  ? What 
did  a lex  frumentaria  of  C.  Gracchus  establish  ? (see  note  2.)  What  did 
Clodius  introduce  ? (note  2.)  Did  this  last  long  ? (note  2.) 

191.  Who  or  what  were  maintained  by  the  proceeds  of  the  public 
estates  ? What  other  funds  seem  to  have  been  applied  to  the  mainte- 
nance of  public  worship  ? How  early  do  we  find  mention  of  porloria 
and  tributa?  Of  what  do  the  tributa  seem  to  have  consisted  originally? 
When  was  a property-tax  imposed  ? After  the  expulsion  of  the  Kings, 
who  seem  for  a time  to  have  been  exempted  from  these  payments  ? 

192.  What  was  the  standing  direct  contribution  from  Roman  citi- 
zens? Was  it  ever  arbitrarily  increased  by  the  Censors ? Why?  By 
whom  was  it  collected  ? Explain  vicesima  manumissionum. 

193.  Mention  some  extraordinary  sources  of  revenue.  How  were 
some  conquered  states  (e.  g.  the  Aurunci,  b.  c.  502)  made  to  contribute 
to  the  state  revenues  ? 

194.  What  were  the  standing  contributions  from  conquered  countries  ? 

From  what  was  Italy  exempt  ? What  was  an  important  item  of  the 
revenue  ? When  the  Romans  conquered  a country,  of  what  portion  of 
it  did  they  take  possession  ? 195.  Where  were  considerable  tracts  of  this 

ager  publicus  to  be  found  ? How  was  the  pasture  land  ( saltus ) leased 
out  ? Explain  scriptures.  Who  farmed  the  scriptures  1 In  ancient 
times,  whom  do  we  find  exclusively  in  occupation  ( possessio ) of  the  cul- 
tivated land?  What  did  they  pay  for  it?  Name  some  other  productive 
sources  of  revenue.  What  became  in  Italy  a state  monopoly  at  a very 
early  period  ? 

196.  Was  the  income  of  the  state  collected  immediately  by  govern- 
ment ? What  exception  was  there  to  this  ? How  was  the  collection  of 
the  state  revenues  managed  ? What  was  the  term  for  letting  the  public 
taxes,  &c.  ? ( vectigalia  locare ).  for  taking  or  farming  them  ? ( vectiga - 
lia  redimere) . Where,  and  with  what  formalities  did  the  bidding  take 
place  ? When  a societas  publicanorum  took  a public  tax  or  other  source 
of  revenue,  who  acted  as  its  representative  in  making  the  purchase  ? 
197.  Explain  familia  publicanorum.  Who  were  the  principal  govern- 
ment contractors?  Who  were  disqualified  from  undertaking  any  public 
contracts  ? 

198.  What  did  the  large  sums  which  flowed  into  the  Exchequer  from 
foreign  conquests,  enable  the  government  to  dispense  with  ? When  was 
the  property- tax  suspended?  What  did  the  lex  Thoria  determine  with 


V 


196 


QUESTIONS  TO 


respect  to  the  ager  publicus  ? From  the  year  b.  c.  60,  on  what  was  the 
existence  of  the  Roman  state  in  a great  measure  dependent  ? 

199.  During  the  Republic,  by  whom  were  all  affairs  of  finance  trans- 
acted ! Who  were  the  principal  officers  of  finance  ! What  was  the 
public  Treasury  termed  ! In  what  building  was  it  included  ! 

200.  How  did  Augustus  diminish  the  importance  of  the  a,  rarium?  Fot 
what  benefits  to  the  army  and  people,  did  the  Emperors  compensate  by 
new  taxes  I 201.  From  whose  reign  was  the  financial  administration 
entirely  changed  ! In  subsequent  reigns,  by  what  was  the  public  expen- 
diture considerably  increased  ! 

202.  How  were  the  inhabitants  of  vanquished  states  treated  '?  If  they 
were  transferred  to  the  slate,  did  they  become  citizens  ? with  what  re- 
striction or  curtailment  of  rights  ! For  the  management  of  their  political 
affairs,  what  officer  was  sent  out  every  year  from  Rome!  How  was 
their  local  business  conducted ! 203.  By  what  time  had  most  of  these 

cities  acquired  the  full  rights  of  citizenship  ! Explain  Latini,  Itali,  socii 
womenque  Laiinum.  What  was  the  condition  of  these  Latini?  Did 
any  of  them  gradually  adopt  the  Roman  civil  code  ! 

204.  When  were  the  several  Italian  states  amalgamated  into  one 
empire  ? What  did  the  allied  states  and  Latin  colonies  then  become  1 
What  did  this  confer  on  their  inhabitants!  In  these  municipalities,  by 
whom  were  the  local  business,  and  questions  affecting  the'  rights  ox  in- 
dividuals, settled ! What  offices,  respectively,  did  Milo  hold  in  Lnnu- 
vium,  and  Cicero’s  son  in  Arplnum ! (see  note  5.)  Where  were  im- 
portant criminal  proceedings  conducted  ? 205.  Did  the  Prefectures,  of 

which  we  read  even  after  the  Julian  law,  differ  essentially  from  the  muni- 
cipia  ! By  the  lex  Julia,  was  Gallia  Cisalpina  comprehended  in  Italy ! 
To  whafr-other  province  was  the  right  of  citizenship  soon  extended! 
When  did  the  Transpadani  receive  the  privilege  of  citizenship!  Under 
the  Emperors,  what  form  did  Italy  gradually  assume  ! 

206.  Whenever  the  Romans  desired  to  retain  a conquered  country  as 
the  property  of  the  state,  what  did  they  do!  Name  the  most  ancient 
provinces.  By  whom  w’as  the  first  settlement  of  the  province  effected  ! 

207.  At  first,  v'ho  only  were  chosen  as  Governors  ! What  change  was 
soon  afterwards  introduced ! Was  a similar  change  ever  made  with 
reference  to  the  Consuls ! How  were  the  provinces  divided  ! how  as- 
signed ! What  arrangement  did  a law  of  the  younger  Gracchus  intro- 
duce with  reference  to  the  consular  provinces!  In  Cicero’s  time,  what 
enactment  was  made  with  reference  to  both  consular  and  praetorian  pro- 
vinces ! Did  the  people  ever  themselves  assign  a province  to  a Governor  ? 
Give  an  instance. 

208.  With  what  was  the  provincial  Governor  invested,  before  his  de- 
parture from  Rome  ! With  what  was  he  furnished  ! What  was  his 
position  in  the  province  ! By  whom  was  he  assisted  in  the  administra- 
tion of  his  office  ! Flow  was  the  number  of  his  Legates  determined  ! 
Who  chose  his  Legate  and  his  Quaestor  ? On  what  terms  did  these  offi- 
cials live  with  the  Governor  ! What  was  the  Praetorian  cohort,  properly 
so  called  1 What  was  his  second  cohors  Pretoria  ? 

209.  By  the  Cornelian  law,  what  was  the  Governor  required  to  do 
after  the  expiration  of  his  term  of  office  ! For  what  purpose  were  depu- 
tations frequently  sent  to  Rome  from  the  provinces ! Into  what  did  this 
practice  sometimes  degenerate  ! What  right  did  the  inhabitants  of  the 


MANUAL  Or  ROMAN  ANTIQ.U ITI F3. 


197 


provinces  enjoy  ? On  these  occasions,  who  acted  as  their  patrons  and 
hosts?  210.  Explain  repetundarurh.  What  did  a lex  Servilia  promise 
to  any  provincial  who  should  prosecute  a Governor  to  conviction  ? Was 
it  easy  for  a deputation  from  the  provinces  to  establish  any  accusation 
against  the  Roman  aristocracy? 

I 211.  Was  the  municipal  constitution,  retained  by  the  cities,  regulated 
in  a great  measure  by  Roman  laws  ? Was  it  subject  to  the  interference 
and  control  of  the  Roman  Governor?  What  remained  unchanged? 
How  was  the  defence  of  the  countiy  provided  for  ? What  did  a part  of 
the  land  become  ? What  was  done  with  the  ager  publicus  ? Did  the 
tributes  vary  in  these  provinces?  To  whom  were  the  public  revenues 
farmed  out?  Were  the  provinces  often  oppressed  by  the  Publicans, 
Governors,  and-  Negotiatores  ? 212.  What  did  the  Governors  always 

expect?  What  were  they  often  bribed  to  connive  at?  Mention  some 
of  the  evils  to  which  the  provinces  were  subjected. 

213.  Explain  the  term  conventus.  When  a conventus  was  held,  who 
presided  as  judge  ? Has  the  term  conventus  any  other  meaning?  214. 
What  did  the  Governor,  on  assuming  office,  generally  issue  ? On  what 
was  it  principally  based  ? What  power  had  the  Governor  within  the 
limits  of  his  province?  Where  were  capital  offences  committed  by  Ro- 
man citizens  tried  ? In  what  cases  did  the  province  itself  possess  juris- 
diction ? 

215.  Mention  some  especial  privileges  that  some  of  the  provincial 
cities  enjoyed  from  the  beginning. 

21G.  How  did  Augustus  divide  the  Provinces?  Plow  long  did  this 
division  continue  ? By  whom  were  the  Senatorial  Provinces  adminis- 
tered ? by  whom  the  Imperial  ? When  was  a general  code  of  municipal 
laws  formed  ? On  what  was  this  code  founded  ? Did  there  still  exist 
any  diversity  in  the  privileges  enjoyed  by  different  cities  ? 217.  When 

did  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  Roman  Empire  receive  the  privilege  of 
citizenship  ? From  the  days  of  Diocletian  and  Constantine,  how  was  the 
Empire  divided?  What  separation  of  authority  then  took  place? 

218.  In  the  earliest  period  of  Roman  history,  did  any  military 
establishment  exist?  In  the  remotest  times,  of  what  number  did  the 
army  consist  ? How  many  centuries  equitum  were  there  ? Who  were 
(probably)  the  celeres  mentioned  by  Livy  ? How  many  celcres  were 
there?  219.  Who  seems  to  have  increased  their  number?  how  much? 
Had  the  subsequent  division  of  the  people  by  Servius  Tullius  a military 
or  a merely  civil  character  ? In  this  division,  how  many  centuries  of 
equites  were  there  ? Of  whom  were  they  composed  ? How  many  classes 
of  infantry  were  there  ? How  were  these  classes  subdivided  ? By  whom 
were  distinct  centuries  formed  ? 

220.  According  to  what  division  was  the  levy  of  soldiers  long  con- 
ducted? What  division  was  afterwards  followed?  From  whom  were 
the  men  chosen?  Explain  the  term  juniores.  What  was  the  term  of 
service  for  the  infantry?  What  for  the  cavalry?  When  did  a standing 
army  begin  to  be  established-?  Show  that  both  the  legionary  and  cavalry 
service  were  esteemed  honourable.  221.  Who  performed  no  military 
duty,  except  on  extraordinary  occasions ? Where  did  they  then  serve? 
Who  was  the  first  who  chose  soldiers  without  reference  to  property  ? Did 
this  practice  ever  become  universal  ? Were  libertini  ever  admitted  into 
the  legions?  Towards  the  end  of  the  Republic,  who  were  exempted 


198 


QUESTIONS  TO 


from  compulsory  military  service?  Under  the  Emperors,  of  whom  did 
the  army  in  a great  measure  consist  ? 

222,  223.  In  the  early  days  of  the  Republic,  how  many  legions  were 
usually  enrolled  every  year?  Did  the  number  of  allied  troops  ever  (in 
any  branch)  equal  or  exceed  the  number  of  Roman  troops  ? Describe 
the  annual  levies  or  conscriptions.  Explain  the  terms  scribere  exercitum, 
nomina  dare , dclectum  habere,  legere  milites,  militiam  detrectare.  Who 
were  exempted  from  military  service  ? When  was  the  right  of  exemption 
restricted  ? What  eererriony  was  necessary  to  constitute  the  obligation 
to  serve  in  war?  Explain  the  terms  stipendia  legitima  merere  ox  facers, 
missio,  emeriti,  evocati. 

224.  When  did  the  Roman  legionaries  first  receive  pay  ? Who  doubts 
the  correctness  of  this  statement?  (see  note  7.)  What  was  the  pay  of  a 
legionary  soldier  ! What  reckoning  was  always  observed  in  the  payment 
of  the  soldiery?  What  did  a centurion  receive?  What  a cavalry 
soldier?  Was  any  portion  kept  back  ? if  so,  for  what?  When  was  the 
state  obliged  to  find  all  the  accoutrements  of  the  soldiers  ? When  was 
it  usual  to  grant  them  greater  privileges?  Under  the  Emperors,  what 
w^s  the  nature  of  their  pay  ? 225.  In  ancient  times,  who  were  appointed 

to  the  cavalry  service  ? By  an  ordinance  of  Servius  Tullius,  what  were 
the  Knights  allowed  for  the  purchase  of  a horse  ? What  annually  for  its 
keep  ? In  later  times  did  they  still  receive  the  <es  equestre  and  the  as 
hordearium  for  the  keep  of  an  equus  publicus  ? What  was  at  length 
substituted  for  the  as  hordearium  ? How  were  the  equites  who  had  no 
equus  publicus  mounted?  When  did  this  first  occur?  When  the 
equestrian  order  was  formed,  how  were  the  cavalry  soldiers  levied  ? 

226.  How  were  the  infantry  divided?  How  was  each  legio  subdi- 
vided? How  was  the  cavalry  corps  attached  to  each  legion  divided? 
What  was  the  strength  of  each  legion  ? Who  formed  the  chief  strength 
of  the  army  ? According  to  Livy,  how  were  they  originally  formed  ? 
Into  how  many  battalions  were  they  afterwards  divided  ? Name  the 
lines  with  their  arms.  Who  were  denominated  antepilani  ? 227. 

What  were  the  chief  defensive  arms  ? What  were  their  offensive 
weapons  (tela)  ? Explain  milites  Icvis  armatures,  velites.  How  did 
these  fight?  With  what  weapons?  What  other  descriptions  of  light 
troops  belonged  to  the  milites  levis  armatures  ? Did  the  arms  of  the 
cavalry  differ  essentially  from  those  of  the  infantry?  Had  they  too  a 
lighter  and  heavier  armament?  What  was  the  usual  military  costume? 
Over  what  was  the  sagum  worn  ? What  was  the  paludamentum  ? 

228.  To  whom  was  the  command  ( imperium ) of  the  army  intrusted  ? 
Who  came  next  to  the  commander-in-chief?  Who  commanded  the 
single  legions  ? Describe  the  rotation  of  their  command.  After  the 
year  b.  o.  363,  how  were  the  Tribuni  militum  chosen  ? Who  were  under 
the  Tribuni  militum  ? 229.  How  many  centurions  were  there  to  each 

maniple?  Who  was  the  centurio  primi  pili,  or  primus  pilus?  What 
was  the  centurion  of  lowest  rank  called  ? Who  were  under  the  centu- 
rions? In  the  provinces,  who  acted  as  Commander-in-chief?  In  extra- 
ordinary emergencies,  by  whom  was  the  army  commanded  ? 

230.  Who  settled  the  contingent  to  be  furnished  by  each  of  the  allies  ? 
Who  chose  commanders  for  these  forces  ? What  title  did  they  bear  ? 
To  what  legionary  officers  did  they  correspond  ? How  were  the  allied 
troops  employed  ? How  was  the  allied  infantry  divided  ? how  the  ca 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


199 


valry  ? 231.  How  was  the  pay,  clothing,  and  keep  of  the  allied  troops 

defrayed  1 In  the  distribution  of  rewards,  or  the  division  of  spoil,  did 
these  allies  ever  receive  as  large  a share  as  the  Roman  soldiers  ? When 
did  the  Italian  allies  begin  to  serve  in  the  legions  ? W ere  their  cohorts 
then  intermixed  with  the  Roman  troops?  What  were  the  auxiliary  troops 
of  foreign  nations  termed  ? 

■\  232.  What  was  the  most  common  order  of  march  ? What  did  each 
soldier  carry?  Explain  milites  impediti;  sarcina.  For  the  transport 
ot  the  tents,  forage,  and  other  heavy  baggage,  what  did  they  employ  ? 
Distinguish  between  signa  and  vexilia.  Explain  the  terms  signa  con- 
feree, inf  err  e,  referee,  movere,  convellere,  convertere.  (note  8.)  From 
what  building  were  they  brought  out  when  the  army  commenced  its 
march  ? 233.  What  division  had  each  its  standard  ? What  was  the 

legionary  standard  from  the  time  of  Marius?  Was  great  regularity  of 
step  observed  on  the  march  ? Were  scouts  sent  out  ? Were  the  camp- 
followers  often  very  numerous  ? Name  some  of  them. 

234.  On  a march,  what  did  the  army  do  every  night  ? Explain  casira 
metari.  What  camps  were  fortified  more  carefolly  ? What  owe  their 
origin  to  the  great  stationary  camps  of  the  Romans  ? Describe  a Roman 
encampment.  Explain  fossa,  agger,  valli,  vallum.  How  many  gates 
were  there  ? Name  them.  Explain  pars  superior,  prxlorium,  pars  in- 
ferior. 235.  Explain  sub  pellibus  durare.  By  how  many  soldiers  was 
each  tent  occupied?  How  were  the  rows  of  tents  separated?  Where 
were  sentinels  posted  ? Who  made  the  rounds  ? How  were  the  signals 
given  ? Explain  tuba,  cornu,  buccina,  lituus.  In  the  camp,  what  exer- 
cises were  practised  ? Explain  vasa  colligere. 

236.  Of  how  many  lines  did  the  order  of  battle  generally  consist  ? 
Name  them,  and  state  how  they  were  posted,  and  divided.  How  were 
the  intervals  between  the  maniples  or  cohorts  covered  ? In  what  form 
then  did  they  stand  ? How  were  the  open  spaces  occupied  ? Where 
were  the  legions  placed  ? What  troops  formed  the  wings  ? When  cir- 
cumstances rendered  it  expedient,  what  different  orders  of  battle  were 
formed?  Describe  the  cuneus,  the  orbis,  and  the  tesludo.  237.  By  what 
corps  was  the  General  attended  ? Before  the  battle,  what  did  he  do  ? 
With  what  did  the  battle  generally  begin  ? What  troops  were  first  en- 
gaged ? What  phrase  denotes  to  sound  a retreat  ? 

238,  239.  Distinguish  between  oppugnare,  obsidere.  Give  the  terms 
for  to  invest  a city.  How  did  the  troops  first  advance  ? How  was  the  city 
sometimes  surrounded  ? How  was  the  siege  then  pushed  on  ? Explain 
agger,  confabulates  turres,  falaricas,  malleoli,  turres  ambulatories,  arics. 
240.  What  was  a vinea  ? what  the  tolleno  ? what  cuniculi  ? How  did 
the  besieged  defend  themselves? 

241.  What  rewards  did  the  Roman  soldiers  receive  ? On  what  occa- 
sions respectively  was  the  corona  civica,  vallaris  or  castrensis , muralis, 
obsidionalis  or  graminea  granted  ? What  did  P.  Decius  receive  on  one 
occasion  ? 242.  Mention  some  other  rewards.  By  whom  were  these 

gifts  distributed  ? Of  what  other  rewards  do  we  sometimes  hear?  What 
new  mode  of  rewarding  the  soldiery  was  introduced  by  Sulla  ? What 
were  the  military  punishments  ? In  cases  of  mutiny  what  was  some- 
times done  ? 

243.  What  were  the  highest  rewards  that  could  be  conferred  on  a 
general  ? What  were  the  conditions  of  a justus  triumphus  ? 244.  De- 


•200 


QUESTIONS  TO 


scribe  the  triumphal  procession.  Where  and  to  whom  did  the  general 
offer  up  solemn  prayer  and  sacrifices  ? What  followed  this  procession  1 
Give  the  terms  for  to  triumph.  245.  What  was  sometimes  done  by 
generals  who  were  unable  to  have  their  triumph  in  Rome  1 Under  the 
Empire,  for  whom  was  the  triumph  almost  exclusively  reserved  ? What 
inferior  sort  of  triumph  was  there  l Describe  it.  How  were  victories 
commemorated?  What  were  the  primitive  tropasa?  To  what  were 
conquered  foes  sometimes  compelled  to  submit  ? What  commemorative 
monuments  do  we  read  of  besides  tropa-a  ? 

1246.  Under  the  Empire  how  were  the  legions  recruited  ? What 
change  took  place  in  their  pay  ? On  whom  did  the  fate  of  Rome  become 
at  last  dependent  ? 

247.  When  do  we  meet  with  the  first  traces  of  a fleet  ? When  may 
we  consider  Rome  to  have  become  a naval  power  ? Who  first  overcame 
the  Carthaginian  fleet  ? Who  first  maintained  standing  fleets  ? Explain 
naves  longre,  triremes,  quinquer  ernes.  What  lighter  descriptions  of  ves- 
sels were  there  ? When  were  Liburme  adopted  ? Describe  them.  What 
were  transports  called  ? Describe  the  methods  of  attack  in  naval  war- 
fare. What  were  grappling-irons  called  1 248.  Was  the  naval  service 

less  respectable  than  that  of  the  army  1 Who  often  manned  the  fleet  ? 
What  were  the  marines  or  ship-soldiers  called  ? Who  were  sometimes 
obliged  to  furnish  ships  and  sailors?  Who  generally  commanded  the 
fleet  ? Under  what  title  ? What  was  his  ship  called  ? By  whom  were 
other  ships  usually  commanded  ? Who  directed  the  rowers  ? Distin- 
guish between  naves  subduccre,  deducere.  What  were  navalia  ? Of 
what  is  mention  sometimes  made  ? 

249.  What  was  the  chief  characteristic  of  the  Roman  religion  ? In 
what  may  the  grave  and  practical  character  of  the  people  be  detected  ? 
Were  the  sacred  usages  rigidly  observed  or  not? 

250.  With  what  was  the  religion  of  Rome  inseparably  interwoven  ? 

251.  Were  the  Romans  tolerant  towards  strange  religions  ? Did  they 
try  to  secure  their  own  religion  from  any  admixture  of  foreign  creeds 
{super stitio)  1 What  was  it  sometimes  deemed  expedient  to  do  ? Ex- 
plain pietas. 

252.  From  what  countries  was  the  most  ancient  religious  worship  de- 
rived ? By  what  was  the  national  religion  soon  overlaid  and  obscured  ? 
When  did  the  Romans  begin  to  lose  their  childlike  belief  in  the  truth  of 
their  traditional  theology  ? What  religion  was  now  adopted  by  the 
learned  ? What  did  the  common  people  eagerly  embrace  ? Iiow  was 
religion  still  upheld  ? 

253.  What  were  the  twelve  higher  divinities  called  ? Name  them. 
What  was  the  principal  temple  of  Jupiter  ? By  whom  and  where  was 
it  erected  ? Who  shared  this  temple  with  him  ? What  were  his  appel- 
lations ? What  festival  was  celebrated  in  his  honour  on  the  Alban 
Mount  ? When  and  by  whom  were  sacrifices  offered  to  Diespiter  ? 
What  day  of  the  month  was  dedicated  to  him  ? Whose  statue  was 
brought  to  Rome  after  the  destruction  of  Veii  ? Give  the  titles  of  Juno. 
What  was  her  festival  ? What  day  was  sacred  to  her  ? 

254.  From  what  language  does  the  name  Minerva' seem  to  be  de- 
rived ? Give  the  legendary  account  of  the  Palladium.  Where  was  it 
placed  ? By  whom  was  the  worship  of  Vesta  said  to  have  been  brought 
to  Italy  ? By  whom  introduced  into  Rome  ? Give  an  account  of  her 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


201 


round  temple.  When  is  a temple  said  to  have  been  dedicated  at  Rome 
to  Ceres,  Liber,  and  Libera?  When  was  her  festival  held?  Give  its 
name  and  character.  To  what  does  her  worship  seem  in  the  more  an- 
cient times  to  have  had  especial  reference  ? Where  was  the  temple  of 
Neptunus  ? 

655.  Who  was  Venus  ? When  and  under  what  title  did  she  begin 
to  be  especially  honoured  ? Who  was  Mars  or  Mavors  ? Give  his  title. 
What  was  preserved  in  his  temple  ? By  whom  ? Who  was  Bellona  ? 
Where  her  temple  ? What  business  was  transacted  in  the  temple  of 
Bellona?  Give  the  other  name  of  Vulcanus  and  that  of  his  festival. 
When  celebrated  ? What  was  the  most  celebrated  temple  of  Apollo  ? 
For  what  was  it  remarkable  ? When  were  Ludi  Apollinares  intro- 
duced ? Where  had  Diana  a temple  ? By  whom  and  for  what  purpose 
was  it  dedicated  ? 

What  deities  came  next  to  the  Dii  Consentes  ? 

256.  With  whose  story  does  the  legend  of  Saturnus  coincide  ? State 
the  legend.  Describe  the  Saturnalia.  Who  played  a conspicuous  part 
in  the  Saturnalia  ? What  part?  (Quote  Horace’s  allusion  to  it.  Age, 
libertate  Decembri,  Quando  ita  majores  voluerunt,  utere .)  Who  was 
the  wife  of  Saturnus  ? 

257.  From  what  country  was  the  worship  of  Janus  probably  derived  ? 
Over  what  did  he  preside?  Among  the  Romans,  what  was  supposed  to 
Be.under  his  protection  ? What  does  Livy  state  about  a Janus  ? What 
was  it  probably  ? What  were  jani  ? How  was  Janus  represented  ? 
What  was  his  principal  feast?  How  came  Rhea  or  Cybele  to  be  ho- 
noured at  Rome?  Give  her  titles.  Give  the  name  of  her  feast:  of  he-- 
priests. 

258.  What  other  name  had  Pluto  ? Who  was  associated  with  him 
What  was  there  in  the  Comitium  ? What  ceremony  was  gone  through 
with  respect  to  it  ? Give  the  other  name  of  Bacchus.  What  was  his 
festival  called  ? With  w'hom  was  Sol  often  confounded?  With  whom 
Luna  ? What  was  Genius  ? What  ceremonies  were  observed  with  re- 
ference to  the  Genius  ? When  especially  ? 

259.  Who  was  Terminus?  To  whom  is  his  deification  ascribed? 
Where  was  Iris  altar  ? What  legend  was  there  about  Terminus  ? Who 
was  Consus  ? With  whom  confounded  ? What  does  he  seem  to  have 
had  ? What  were  his  games  ? When  and  where  celebrated  ? Who 
was  Deus  Fidius  ? What  was  he  originally  called  ? With  whom  in 
later  times  do  we  often  find  him  confounded  ? By  whom  is  the  worship 
of  Hercules  said  to  have  been  introduced  ? 

260.  Who  was  QuirInus  ? Who  was  Vertumnus  ? Who  was  his 
wife  ? Who  was  Flora  ? Who  was  Faunus  ? With  whom  is  he  often 
confounded  ? By  whom  were  the  Lupercalia  introduced  into  Italy  ? 
Account  for  the  name.  Who  was  the  wife  of  Faunus  ? With  whom 
confounded  ? Where  and  by  whom  was  the  festival  of  Cybele  or  Bona 
Dea  celebrated  ? 

261.  Who  was  Silvanus?  Who  was  Pales  ? What  day  was  con- 
sidered the  birth-day  of  Rome  ? Who  were  the  Lares  ? Where  did 
their  statues  stand  ? On  festival  days  what  was  placed  before  the  Lares  ? 
What  other  Lares  were  there  ? State  the  name  of  their  feast,  and  the 
time  of  its  celebration  Who  were  the  Penates  ? Where  did  they  stand  ? 

9* 


202 


QUESTIONS  TO 


In  what  part  of  a Roman  house  did  their  images  stand?  Who  were  the 
Manes,  dii  manes  ? Iiow  were  they  honoured  and  propitiated  ? 

262.  Name  some  inferior  deities  borrowed  from  the  Grecian  mytho- 
logy. When  and  why  was  the  image  of  JEsculopius  brought  to  Rome  ? 
Mention  some  divinities  or  personifications  whose  personal  existence  is 
involved  in  obscurity. 

V263.  What  was  the  authority  of  the  Senate  in  religious  affairs  ? 

264.  Where  was  the  Roman  religious  system,  with  the  regulations 
respecting  festival  days,  temples,  &c.,  described  ? Under  whose  care 
were  these  records  placed  ? Who  was  the  Pontifex  maximus  ? With 
what  were  the  Pontifices  charged  ? Give  a general  account  of  their 
functions.  On  whom  might  the  Pontifices  inflict  punishment  ? 265.  Of 
how  many  members  did  the  college  originally  consist  ? Of  what  rank 
were  they  originally  ? What  change  did  the  lex  Ogulnia  introduce  ? 
What  change  took  place  in  the  number  of  the  Pontifices  ? What  were 
their  insignia  ? Who  were  placed  under  them  ? What  was  the  especial 
duty  of  the  Pontifex  maximus? 

266.  After  the  year  b.  c.  198  who  were  charged  with  the  management 
of  the  banquets  at  the  great  festivals  ? 

267.  By  whom  were  the  Augurs  introduced  ? From  what  country 
did  he  probably  borrow  the  institution  ? What  were  their  functions  ? 
How  was  their  spectio  conducted  ? What  was  their  sentence  called  ? 
On  whom  was  it  binding  ? Who  had  the  right  of  consulting  auspices  ? 

268.  Describe  the  law  of  precedence  (in  point  of  binding  effect)  of  the 
magisterial  auspices.  How  could  the  auspices  be  employed  to  prevent 
the  holding  of  Comitia  ? Explain  servare  de  coslo.  When  was  the  pri- 
vilege withdrawn,  at  least  in  part  ? If  any  error  occurred  in  the  auspices, 
what  might  the  college  of  Pontifices  do  ? Explain  vitio  creati.  When 
the  belief  in  the  supernatural  knowledge  of  the  Augurs  had  declined,  why 
was  the  practice  still  retained  ? State  the  original  number  of  the  Augurs 
and  the  later  additions  to  it.  269.  Were  the  Augurs  highly  respected  or 
not  ? Who  were  the  private  Augurs  ? What  were  the  most  important 
auguries  ? Explain  tripudium  solistimum.  What  were  those  birds  called 
whose  flight  was  prophetic  ? What  those  whose  song  was  prophetic  ? 
Describe  the  mode  of  taking  auguries.  Explain  templum  capere.  Give 
the  meaning  of  templum  in  the  technical  language  of  the  Augurs,  (note 
4.)  What  templa  were  there  at  Rome  besides  what  ice  should  call 
temples  ? (note  4.)  What  was  the  Augur’s  lituus  ? 

270.  State  the  legend  of  the  Sibylline  Books.  When  were  they  con- 
sulted ? On  whose  motion  ? by  whom  ? Who  were  the  decemviri  sacro- 
rum,  quindecemviri  libris  Sibyllinis  inspiciend's  or  sacris  faciendis  ? 

271.  In  addition  to  these  duties  with  what  were  they  charged  ? Where 
were  the  Sibylline  Books  kept  ? When  and  why  were  fresh  Sibylline 
oracles  compiled  ? Where  were  they  deposited  ? Explain  sortes  sacra . 
Where  were  they  kept  ? (note  5.) 

272.  Who  were  theFetiales?  What  was  their  business?  Explain 
res  repetere,  clarigatio.  If  satisfaction  was  not  granted  within  a speci- 
fied time,  how  was  war  declared  ? How  was  this  managed  when  more 
distant  wars  were  waged  ? 273.  How  were  the  Fetiales  employed  in 

concluding  alliances  ? What  was  their  number  ? What  was  the  president 
styled  ? Did  their  influence  continue  to  be  great  ? Is  mention  made  of 
Fetiales  under  the  Emperors  ? 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


203 


274.  Distinguish  the  Augurs  from  the  Haruspices.  What  means  did 
the  Haruspices  generally  prescribe  for  averting  impending  misfortunes  ? 
What  were  prodigia,  portenta,  monstra,  ostenta,  procurare  prodigia  ? 
What  was  their  science  called  ? What  was  their  manual  termed  ? 
Where  was  their  science  taught  1 Who  sometimes  moved  that  Haruspices 
should  be  summoned  from  the  Etrurian  schools  to  Rome?  275.  When 
did  the  Haruspices  acquire  great  importance  ? What  body  of  men  was 
often  accompanied  by  Haruspices  ? To  whose  suite  were  they  often  at- 
tached ? By  whom  was  their  art  gradually  superseded  1 

276.  What  officer  superintended  the  religious  observances  formerly 
conducted  by  the  kings?  To  whom  was  he  subject?  Who  only  could 
rill  this  office  ? Was  it  tenable  with  any  other  appointment?  if  so,  with 
what  ? 277.  Who  were  the  Flamines  ? Name  the  chief  Flamines.  Of 

what  rank  must  they  be  ? What  official  inconvenience  or  disqualification 
was  caused  to  the  Flamen  Dialis  by  the  death  of  his  wife  (the  Flami- 
nica)  ? IVhy  ? When  and  why  was  the  number  of  Flamens  consider- 
ably increased  ? Who  were  the  Curiones?  of  what  rank?  Who  was 
their  chief  ? 

278.  By  whom  and  for  what  purpose  were  the  Virgines  Vestales  ap- 
pointed? What  important  privileges  did  they  enjoy  ? To  whose  super- 
intendence were  they  subject  ? For  what  offences  could  he  inflict  a 
severe  punishment  on  them?  How  were  Vestals  convicted  of  unchastity 
punished  ? 279.  What  was  at  first  and  what  afterwards  the  number  of 

Vestal  virgins  ? What  did  they  wear  ? (What  peculiar  head-dress  did 
they  wear,  whilst  sacrificing  ? The  suffibulum,  an  oblong  piece  of  white 
cloth,  bordered  with  purple,  and, fastened  with  a fibula.)  When  a vacancy 
occurred  how  was  it  filled  ? At  a later  period  how  were  candidates  gene- 
rally admitted  ? What  was  their  term  of  service  ? Were  they  permitted 
to  marry  afterwards  ? (Did  they  often  avail  themselves  of  this  permis- 
sion ? No  : it  was  looked  upon  as  dishonourable.) 

280.  By  whom  and  for  what  purpose  were  the  Salii  Gradivi  ap- 
pointed ? What  was  their  number  ? Explain  carmen  Saliare.  When 
and  where  was  it  chanted  ? Were  the  Salii  patricians  or  not  ? What 
other  Salii  were  there  ? 281.  Who  were  the  Luperci  ? On  what  festival 

did  they  go  in  procession  ? Describe  the  procession.  To  whom  is  the 
establishment  of  this  worship  attributed  ? By  whom  was  it  introduced 
into  Rome  ? Who  were  the  Luperci  Julii  ? Who  were  the  Fratres 
Arvales  ? What  was  their  number  ? What  their  office  ? Who  were 
the  Sodales  Titii?  For  what  purpose  were  they  appointed?  What 
other  Sodales  were  afterwards  appointed  ? When  and  why  ? Who  were 
the  Galli  ? Describe  their  procession. 

282.  How  were  the  colleges  of  priests  filled  up  ? W'hen  a Pontifex 
maximus  died  how  was  his  successor  chosen  ? What  change  did  the  lex 
Domitia  introduce  in  the  election  of  priests  ? Who  annulled  this  arrange- 
ment ? By  whom  was  it  afterwards  re-established  ? At  a later  period 
by  whom  was  the  right  of  nomination  claimed  ? What  disqualified  for 
the  priesthood?  Were  the  priests  magistrates?  Might  they  hold  a 
plurality  of  spiritual,  or  spiritual  and  secular  offices  ? Was  there  any  ex- 
ception ? Were  they  tenable  for  life  ? 

283.  Name  some  of  the  priests’  servants  and  their  offices.  Who  were 
the  pullarii  ? What  priests  had  Lictors  ? Who  were  termed  camilli  '! 

284.  How  was  the  Roman  worship  divided  ? Of  what  (besides  as- 


204 


QUESTIONS  TO 


certaining  the  will  of  the  gods  by  auspices,  extispicia,  and  the  Sibylline 
books)  did  the  Roman  worship  consist  1 During  the  acts  of  worship  what 
was  required  ? 

285.  Explain  preeirc  carmen,  flow  were  the  public  days  of  supplica- 
tion [supplication es)  subdivided  ? Describe  a lectisternium.  Explain 
ad  omnia  pulvinaria  sacrificatum.  Explain  voti  reus.  W hat  other  term 
expressed  this  ? Explain  tabula  voliva. 

C286.  What  was  the  most  important  part  of  public  worship  ? What 
does  the  term  sacrum  express  1 (see  note  8.)  How  was  the  sacrifice!' 
clothed?  What  was  required  in  the  victim?  How  was  it  decorated  ? 
By  whom  was  it  led  to  the  altar  ? Who  were  then  called  on  to  with- 
draw ? Explain  the  term  favete  linguis.  Explain  mola  salsa.  What 
term  is  derived  from  mola  ? 287.  Who  inspected  the  entrails  of  the 
slain  victim  ? Explain  lustratio  ? When  did  the  lustraiio  populi  take 
place  ? Mention  some  other  lustrationes.  What  does  a person’s  devoting 
himself  mean  in  Roman  history  ? 

288.  Explain  dies  festi  and  profesti : fasti  and  nefasti  (see  note 
9):  dies  inte.rcisi  (see- note  9):  dies  infausti  or  atri.  Mention  some 
dies  infausti.  Distinguish  between  ferien  station,  conceptivec.,  and 
imperatives.  Give  an  instance  of  a ferice  conception  : of  a ferien  im- 
peritivee.  289.  Whence  is  our  knowledge  of  the  festivals  derived  ? 
Of  the  ferien  stativer,,  state  in  ivhose  honour  and  when  the  following 
festivals  were  held : the  Lupercalia,  the  Matronalia , the  Megalesia, 
the  Parilia ; the  feast  of  the  Bona  JDea ; of  Castor  and  Pollux,  and 
the  Saturnalia.  (With  what  must  the  transvectio  equitum  on  the  Ides 
of  July  not  be  confounded  ? With  the  inspection  of  the  Equites  by  the 
Censor.) 

290.  How  were  the  public  games  subdivided  ? Describe  the  ludi 
Pomani,  magni,  or  maximi.  Describe  the  division  of  the  games  with 
reference  to  their  character.  291.  Describe  the  ludi  circenses.  What 
was  the  game  called  Troja  ? Explain  the  term  ad  bestias  damnati. 
What  were  the  naumachiee  ? 292.  When  were  the  ludi  scenici  intro- 
duced ? From  what  country  were  the  actors  and  dancers  brought  ? Of 
what  shape  were  the  tlieatra  ? What  was  the  whole  space  for  spectators 
called?  ( Cavea .)  What  were  the  cunei,  and  why  so  called?  (Each 
compartment  of  benches,  being  formed  by  the  intersection  of  straight 
passages  radiating  from  a centre  with  semicircular  passages,  preecinc- 
tionee  was  of  a wedge-lihe  shape,  i.  e.  narrower  at  the  base,  and  grow- 
ing witter  as  it  approached  the  circumference  of  the  semicircle.)  Of  what 
shape  was  the  orchestra  ? For  whom  was  it  set  apart  ? For  whom 
were  the  next  fourteen  benches  appropriated  ? By  whose  law  ? When 
was  it  passed?  Were  the  theatres  covered?  if  so,  how?  Who  was 
the  first  that  constructed  a theatre  of  stone  ? Who  purchased  the  dra- 
matic pieces  from  their  authors  ? With  what  was  the  recitation  accom- 
panied? What  did  the  actors  wear?  293.  What  was  the  origin  of  the 
ludi  gladiaiorii  or  munera  ? At  what  solemnities  were  they  first  intro- 
duced ? When  afterwards  ? Where  were  they  performed  ? How  were 
the  gladiators  divided  ? Of  what  rank  were  they  generally  ? 294.  By 

whom  were  they  instructed  in  the  use  of  their  weapons  ? Account  for 
the  names,  and  state  when  you  can  the  arms,  of  the  Samnites,  retiarii, 
essedarii,  andabatec,  and  minnilLones.  With  whom  did  the  mirmillones 
generally  fight  ? 295.  Explain  rudes,  anna  lusoria,  pradudere ; anna 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


205 


dccretoria.  Explain  pnllicem  premere,  vertere.  Explain  recipe  ferrum. 
(‘  Receive  the  sword,’  i.  e.  submit  patiently  to  he  slain.)  What  were  the 
character  and  habits  of  the  gladiators  1 

29G.  What  parts,  &c.,  belonged  to  the  temple  1 What  does  one  ac- 
count state  with  reference  to  statues  1 (see  note  1.)  What  does  ara  pro- 
perly signify  ? (see  note  1 .)  How  are  ara;  and  altaria  often  distin- 
guished ? (see  note  2.)  Explain  and  give  the  derivation  of  bidental. 
Explain  puteal.  What  was  the  puteal  Libonis  ? 297.  What  were  the 

infulce  and  vittaz  ? Explain  verbena.  Plow  was  every  tiring  belonging 
to  the  gods,  or  connected  with  religion,  dedicated  ? By  whom  was  the 
dedication  of  temples  performed!  Who  were  frequently  appointed  to  be 
the  duumviri  for  dedicating  a temple  1 

298.  To  whom  was  the  division  of  time  intrusted?  How  many 
months  did  the  year  of  Romulus  contain  ? With  which  did  it  begin  ? 
Which  had  thirty-one  days  ? How  many  had  the  others  ? Of  how  many 
days  then  did  the  year  consist  ? What  other  account  is  given  of  the 
year  of  Romulus  ? 299.  Was  Numa’s  (or  Tarquinius  Priscus's)  year 

lunar  or  solar  ? Why  was  it  necessary  that  it  should  be  brought  into 
agreement  with  the  solar  year,  that  is,  with  the  recurrence  of  the  seasons 
as  determined  by  the  sun  ? Plow  was  this  agreement  attempted  to  be 
brought  about  ? According  to  the  Decemviral  year  how  was  the  inter- 
calation managed  ? 300.  Who  kept  the  record  of  this  arrangement  ? 

How  was  its  purpose  defeated  ? Explain  the  annus  confusionis.  Who 
undertook  to  reform  the  calendar  ? What  year  was  now  introduced  ? 
Describe  this.  Where  did  Ctesar  insert  the  intercalary  day  ? What  was 
it  called  ? How  was  an  error  again  introduced  shortly  after  his  death  ? 
301.  By  whom  was  this  error  corrected  ? What  were  Sexlilis  and  Quin- 
tilis  now  called  ? Plow  was  the  month  divided  ? What  was  the  eighth 
day  before  the  idus  termed  ? In  what  months  were  the  Nones  on  the 
seventh  and  consequently  the  Ides  on  the  fifteenth  ? (see  note  5.)  On 
what  days  did  the  Nones  and  Ides  respectively  fall  on  the  other  months  ? 
(On  the  5th  and  13th.)  What  was  the  first  of  the  month  called?  How 
were  days  between  the  Calends  (or  Kalends)  and  Nones  reckoned  ? (By 
their  distance, from  the  following  Nones.)  How  those  between  the  Nones 
and  Ides?  (By  their  distance  from  the  following  Idef) : those  between 
the  Ides  andThe  end  of  the  month  ? (By  their  distance  from  the  Calends 
of  the  following  month.)  To  what  month  would  such  a day  before  the 
Calends  of  June  belong  ? / (To  May.)  If  the  Nones  are  on  the  fifth 
should  you  find  the  seeondicorrectly  by  subtracting  2 from  5 ; if  not,  say 
why  not,  and  from  what  you  must  subtract.  (No  ; the  Romans  reckoned 
both  days  in : hence  I must  subtract  from  one  day  more  than  the  number ; 
i.  e.  in  this  case  frorp  six.)  From  what  must  you  subtract  for  Nones  on 
the  7th  ? e (From  8)  ; for  Ides  on  the  thirteenth  ? (From  14)()  ; for  Ides 
on  the  15th?  (From  the  16th);  for  Calends  that  follow  a month  of 
thirty  days  ? (From  32)  ; for  Calends  that  follow  a month  of  31  days? 
(From  33.)  If  the  remainder  is  two,  for  instance,  before  the  Calends, 
tv-hat  will  the  day  be  called  ? ( Fridie  Calendas,  for  our  day  before  is 

called  the  second  day  before,  in  the  Roman  method/)  What  would  the 
thirtieth  of  January  be  called  ? (This  is  a day  before  the  Calends,  or  frst 
of  February.  The  first  of  Februiry  being  virtually  the  32d  of  January; 
I substract  from  32  -f-  1 ==  33 : s nd  since  33  — 30  = 3 ; it  is  the  third 
day  before  the  Calends  of  Februt  iy.)  Explain  a.  cl.  iii.  Kalcndus  Mar- 


206 


QUESTIONS  TO 


Has.  (Cicero  and  Livy,  &c.,  use  the  form  ante  diem  tertium  Kalendas 
Martias,  &c.,  which  is  thus  abridged.)  How  was  this  form  fixed  ? (It 
became  a fixed  formula,  and  might  be  preceded  by  another  preposition  : 
e.  g.  in  ante  diem  iii.  (in  a.  d.  iii.)  Kal.  Mart,  — for  or  against  such  a 
day : so  with  ad,  ex.)  Are  the  names  of  the  months  as  used  with  Nona, 
&c.,  substantives  or  adjectives?  (Adjectives.)  Explain  nundinae.  (note 
fi.)  302.  Date  the  introduction  of  the  week  of  seven  days.  How  did 
the  Romans  divide  the  day  ? . Did  the  hours  vary  in  length  ? Explain 
vigilia.  303.  What  dials  or  clocks  had  they?  Was  the  time  from 
which  the  first  hoar  was  reckoned  fixed  ? Give  a reason  for  your  an- 
swer. When  would  the  Roman  hour  be  as  long  as  ours  ? When  were 
they  the  shortest?  304.  Quote  the  lines  from  Martial  which  describe 
the  Roman  distribution  of  the  day. 

, 305.  How  were  the  habits  of  female  life  gradually  changed  ? When 
was  an  attempt  made  to  limit  the  expenses  of  dress,  &c.  ? Did  the  Ro- 
man women  visit  the  places  of  public  amusement?  306  What  was  the 
general  character  of  education  ? In  the  olden  time  in  what  did  an  im- 
portant part  of  it  consist  ? At  a later  period  on  what  plan  was  it  con- 
ducted ? What  did  boys  learn  ? 307.  Describe  the  taking  of  the  toga 
virilis.  (see  note  8.)  At  what  age  was  this?  After  this,  how  did  they 
endeavour  to  qualify  themselves  for  their  future  position  ? What  oppor- 
tunities were  afforded  them  of  completing  their  gymnastic  education? 
What  country  did  many  of  them  visit?  Why  ? 

308.  Explain  the  nomen,  prtenomert , and  cognomen,  of  a Roman. 
What  fourth  name  was  sometimes  added  ? Give  the  full  names  of  the 
younger  Africanus.  What  name  did  the  daughters  bear  ? 

309.  What  seems  to  prove  that  trade  was  carried  on  at  a very  early 

period  ? What  was  the  most  important  source  of  income  in  the  early 
times  ? From  what  sources  of  income  were  Senators  excluded  ? Was 
landed  property  equally  divided  ? In  later  times  how  was  the  number  of 
free  yeomen  reduced  ? 310.  Explain  mercatura  and  negotiatio.  How 

were  exchanges  and  payments  effected  ? What  was  the  consequence  of 
the  stream  of  wealth  which  flowed  into  Rome  ? 

311.  Of  what  metal  was  money  first  coined  ? Who  first  struck  gold 
money  ? On  whom  did  the  superintendence  of  the  coinage  devolve  after 
the  expulsion  of  the  Kings  ? Who  were  the  triumviri  mvnetales  ? Ac- 
count for  the  AAAFF  in  their  title  as  usually  written.  How  much  did 
an  as  weigh  at  first  ? Into  how  many  uncirc.  was  the  as  divided  ? Give 
the  names  for  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  undo..  Give  the  derivation 
of  Dodrans  : of  Bcs.  (note  1.)  312.  How  many  asses  did  the  following 

coins  contain : decussis,  tripondius,  dupondius  ? Explain  asses  librales  : 
as  grave.  Was  their  weight  afterwards  reduced  ? if  so,  how  far  ? ^ 313. 
When  was  silver  first  coined  ? What  were  the  silver  coins  ? What  the 
value  of  the  denarius  ? Explain  denarius,  bigalus,  quadrigatus.  What 
was  always  reckoned  by  the  old  standard  ? Give  the  value  of  the  quina- 
nus  : of  the  sestertius.  Give  the  derivation  of  sestertius,  (see  note  2.) 
By  what  character  was  the  sestertius  expressed?  What  was  the  value 
of  the  gold  denarii  ? When  were  they  first  struck  ? What  were  they 
called  under  the  Emperors?  314.  In  what  were  large  sums  usually 
reckoned  ? How  were  large  sums  generally  reckoned  ? Distinguish  be- 
tween seste'tius  and  sestertium.  When  are  sestertii,  sestertia  used 
,-egulaiiy  ? ;With  numeral  adjectives.)  When  irregularly  ? (With 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


207 


numeral  adverbs.)  What  does  sestertium  mean  with  a numeral  adverb  ? 
(So  many  hundred  thousand  sesterces.)  What  then  is  sesterlium  semel? 
(100,000  sesterces):  sestertium  decies?  (1,000,000):  sestertium  vicies 
(twenty  ‘ hundred  thousand  sesterces,’  i.  e.  two  million  sesterces.)  Then 
with  numeral  adverbs  below  ten,  what  does  sestertium  mean  ? (So  many 
hundred  thousand  sesterces) : with  numeral  adverbs  above  and  multiples 
of  ten  ? (As  many  million  sesterces  as  the  adverb  is  a multiple  of  ten.) 
How  so  ? (Because  sestertium  decies  is  a million  sesterces.)  What 
then  is  a sestertium  sexcenties  ? (60  millions  of  sesterces.)  In  this  con- 

struction is  sestertium  declined  l (Yes.)  What  is  the  Latin  for  ‘ of  two 
million  sesterces  ?’  ( Sestercii  vicies.)  How  many  sesterces  are  there 

in  sestertium  ter  vicies  ? ( Sestertium  vicies  = 2 million  sesterces : ses- 

tertium ter  = 3 hundred  thousand  sesterces : hence  sestertium  ter 
vicies  = 2,300,000  sesterces.) 

315.  In  long  measure  what  formed  the  unit  1 How  many  palmce  did 
a pes  contain  1 How  many  pollices  ? How  many  digiti  ? How  was 
the  pes  also  divided  1 How  many  pedes  did  a cubitus  contain  ? How 
many  a passus  ? How  many  passus  made  a stadium  ? How  many  a 
milliarium  ? What  was  the  superficial  measure  ? Give  its  length  and 
breadth.  316.  What  was  the  measure  for  dry  and  liquid  goods  ? How 
many  amphora  did  the  culeus  contain  ? Subdivide  an  amphora  (or 
quadrantal),  into  urnre,  congii,  sextarii.  How  many  cyathi  did  the 
sextarius  contain  ? What  were  employed  for  liquid  commodities  ? In 
what  measure  was  the  modius  especially  used  ? How  many  modii  made 
a medimnus  ? 

317.  In  the  later  times  of  the  Republic  was  the  number  of  slaves 
great,  moderate,  or  small  ? By  whom  were  country  estates  ( latifundia ) 
entirely  cultivated  ? Explain  familia  rustica,  and  urbana.  Explain 
verna.  How  were  slaves  divided  ? 318.  In  the  familia  urbana,  name 

the  most  important  offices.  What  office  did  the  nomcnclatores  perform  ? 
Who  were  the  tabellarii  ? Who  were  employed  at  the  toilet  and  in  at- 
tendance on  the  master’s  person  ? When  did  the  art  of  medicine  become 
known  at  Rome  ? (see  note  6.)  By  whom  was  it  for  a long  time  prac- 
tised almost  exclusively  ? (see  note  6.)  Who  were  the  servi  literati  ? 
What  were  the  anagnosta  ? Wh#  were  the  principal  slaves  in  the  fftmi- 
lia  rustica.  ? Explain  the  term  topiarii.  Who  was  the  ergastularius  ? 
(see  note  8.) 

319.  From  whom  did  the  rich  Romans  receive  regular  morning 
visits?  At  what  time  did  business  commence  in  the  Forum,  the  courts 
of  law  and  the  Senate?  When  business  in  the  forum,  &c.,  was  over, 
how  did  the  rich  Romans  pass  the  time  ? What  games  had  they  with 
balls  ? Distinguish  between  pila  and  follis.  What  games  of  chance 
were  played  on  boards  ? Distinguish  between  tali  and  tessera.  320.  How 
were  they  respectively  marked  ? What  was  the  dice-box  called  ? Ex- 
plain cams,  venus.  With  the  tesseree  what  determined  the  victory? 
WThat  was  the  dice-board  called  ? Was  the  game  with  tali  or  with  tes- 
seree always  played  for  money  ? What  was  nearly  our  chess  ? What 
nearly  backgammon ? What  were  the  men  called?  321.  What  was 
usually  done  before  supper  (or  rather  dinner),  coena  ? Explain  lectica, 
lecticarii.  In  whose  time  does  it  seem  not  to  have  been  known  ? In 
whose  was  it  very  common  ? Was  it  ever  used  in  the  city  ? Were  car- 
riages often  seen  in  town?  On  certain  occasions  who  were  allowed  tc 


208 


UUESTIONS  TO 


use  them  ? Was  this  privilege  ever  restricted  ? 322.  For  journeys,  what 

three- wheeled,  what  four-wheeled  carriages  were  employed  t What  were 
they  ? How  were  the  beasts  of  draught  fastened  ? On  a journey,  how 
did  the  travellers  live  ? How  were  ambassadors  ( legati ) entertained  ? 
Explain  a legatio  libera.  Were  the  accommodations  at  inns  good? 
What  were  inns  called  ? 

*323.  When  did  the  taste  for  display  begin  to  show  itself  in  the  ar- 
rangements of  their  houses?  Describe  a Roman  house  or  villa,  as  to  its 
general  character  of  decoration,  furniture,  &c.  324.  Explain  vesti- 

bulum,  ostium,  or  janua.  How  were  gates  closed?  Was  the  gate 
guarded  ? By  whom  ? Was  the  atrium  probably  the  same  as  the  cavum 
radium?  325.  What  were  placed  in  it?  Describe  the  atrium.  What 
was  the  cavum  radium,  or  cavradium  ? What  was  the  impluvium  ? Dis- 
tinguish between  impluvium  and  compluvium.  (The  words  seem  to  de- 
note the  same  open  space,  but  compluvium  refers  to  the  opening  in  the 
roof,  the  uncovered  space  overhead.)  What  was  there  in  the  centre  of 
the  impluvium?  What  was  the  peristylium ? What  were. the  other 
apartments  and  bed-rooms  termed?  Describe  triclinia,  oeci,  exedrre, 
coenacula.  326.  Of  what  was  the  floor  composed  in  ancient  times? 
Explain  pavimentum  sectile,  opus  testaceum,  opus  or  emblema  tessella- 
tion, vermiculatum ; opus  musivum.  How  were  the  walls  ornamented  ? 
Were  the  ceilings  highly  ornamented  ? 327.  By  what  were  fenestra 

closed  when  necessary  ? Had  they  glass  in  them,  or  any  equivalent  sub- 
stance ? At  what  period  ? Are  any  glass  panes  found  at  Pompeii  ? 
(Yes.)  What  plans  were  adopted  for  warming  the  apartments?  Ex- 
plain hypocausta.  What  was  used  for  lighting  in  ancient  times?  What 
at  a later  period  ? How  were  lamps  suspended  or  supported  ? 328.  How 

is  our  knowledge  of  their  baths  derived  ? Name  the  principal  parts  of 
the  thermal.  Bv  whom  was  a Roman  attended  to  the  bath?  What  did 
this  attendant  carry? 

329.  Describe  the  tunica.  What  kind  of  tunic  was  considered  a 
sign  of  effeminacy  ? What  tunic  did  the  Senators  wear  ? What  the 
Knights?  When  and  by  whom  was  a tunica  palmata  wont?  Under 
the  tunic,  what  was  generally  worn?  What  above  it?  What  was  the 
distinctive  national  dress  of  a Roman  citizen  ? How,  to  speak  generally, 
was  it  worn?  Of  what  colour  v/as  the  toga?  What  toga  did  candidates 
for  the  great  magistracies  wear?  Who  wore  a toga  sordida?  How 
were  virgins  and  boys  dressed?  In  triumphs,  what  did  the  victorious 
general  wear?  What  was  the  usual  military  cloak?  What  the  foul- 
weather  or  travelling  mantle?  Describe  it.  330.  In  the  time  of  the 
Emperors,  what  was  often  worn  instead  of  a toga  ? Distinguish  between 
solera  and  calcei.  Was  the  head  bare  or  covered?  What  were  univer- 
sally worn  as  an  ornament  ? How  was  the  heard  worn  ? What  was 
done  in  the  tonstrinra  ? (see  note  1.)  331.  What  was  the  stola  ? What 
was  worn  over  the  stola  ? What  was  the  character  of  the  later  Roman 
dress?  Of  what  did  the  most  ancient  dresses  consist?  When  was 
linen  generally  introduced  ? What  terms  express  linen  or  kinds  of  linen  ? 
Was  silk  ever  worn  ? When  ? 

332.  What  was  a very  common  food  in  ancient  times?  (see  note  2.1 
Were  the  banquets  in  later  times  luxurious  or  simple  ? Were  sumptuary 
laws  ever  enacted  ? From  what  district  did  all  the  best  Italian  wines 
come?  (see  note  3.)  What  held  the  first  rank?  (see  note  3.)  Was  ii 


MANUAL  OF  ROMAN  ANTIQUITIES. 


209 


ever  deposed ? (see ..note  3.)  What  came  next?  (see  note  3.1  What 
was  the  best  Falernian ? (see  note  3.)  Where  grown?  (see  note  3.) 
What  followed  Falernian  ? (see  note  3.)  Name  some  middling  wines, 
(see  note  3.)  What  were  amongst  the  worst  ? (see  note  3.)  When  was 
wine  common  in  the  older  times?  Was  it  usually  mixed  with  water? 
Explain  mulsum.  333.  What  was  the  first  meal  ? What  was  th e pr (in- 
dium ? About  what  hour  was  the  coena  served  ? What  was  the  first 
course  called  ? What  the  principal  course?  What  the  dessert?  Did 
the  Romans  sit  or  lie  at  table  ? How  many  couches  were  generally 
placed  at  each  table?  Name  them.  How  many  guests  did  each  couch 
accommodate  ? Describe  the  commissationes.  Explain  magister  bibendi. 
How  were  the  guests  adorned?  Were  any  spectacles,  any  amusements, 
introduced  at  their  feasts  ? 

334.  From  what  did  the  anxiety  of  the  Romans  ror  the  performance 
of  the  funeral  rites  arise?  Explain  justa  facer  e.  At  the  time  of  death, 
what  did  the  nearest  relations  do  ? By  whom  were  the  preparations  for 
the  funeral  conducted  ? How  was  the  corpse  first  treated  ? What  was 
used  for  a shroud  ? What  was  placed  in  front  of  the  house  ? What  was 
done  at  more  solemn  funerals  ? By  whom  was  the  procession  opened  ? 
335.  What  was  carried  before  the  body?  On  what  was  the  corpse 
borne?  Who  closed  the  procession?  At  the  Forum,  what  was  done ? 
Had  women  the  right  of  a laudatio  ? Was  this  often  claimed?  As  a 
general  rule,  where  might  no  corpse  be  interred  ? W ere  bodies  buried 
or  burnt  ? Where  had  persons  of  consequence  magnificent  private  burial- 
places  ? Under  the  Emperors,  what  was  customary  ? 336.  Describe  the 

ceremony  of  burning  the  dead.  Explain  ossa  legerc.  By  what  were 
funerals  sometimes  accompanied  ? After  the  funeral,  what  took  place  ? 
What  was  decreed  to  the  Emperors  after  their  death  ? With  what  titles , 
&c.,  was  the  person  deified  honoured?  How  was  the  sanctity  of  ceme- 
teries preserved  ? 


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These  lessons  have  been  selected  with  special  reference  to  the  following  peculiari- 
ties: 1st.  Colloquial  character ; 2d.  Variety  of  sentential  structure ; 3d.  Variety  of  sub- 
ject matter;  4th.  Adaptation  to  the  Progressive  development  of  the  pupil’s  mind ; and, 
as  far  as  possible,  5th.  Tendency  to  excite  moral  and  religious  emotions.  Great  pains 
have  been  taken  to  make  the  bookt  In  these  respects,  which  are,  in  fact,  characteristic 
of  the  whole  series,  superior  to  any  others  in  use ; with  what  success,  a brief  comparison 
will  readily  show. 

V.  THE  FIFTH  READER;  or,  COURSE  OF  READING.  Price  75  cents. 

VI.  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  READING  AND  ORATORY.  Price  $1. 

These  books  are  designed  to  cultivate  the  literary  taste,  as  well  as  the  understanding 
and  vocal  powers  of  the  pupil. 

The  Course  of  Reading  comprises  three  parts  ; the  first  part  containing  a more 
elaborate  description  of  elementary  sounds  and  the  parts  of  speech  grammatically  con* 
eider ed,  than  was  deemed  necessary  in  the  preceding  works;  here  indispensable:  pai'i 
second , a complete  classification  and  description  of  every  sentence  to  be  found  in  the 
English,  or  any  other  language;  examples  of  which  in  every  degree  of  expansion,  from 
few  words  to  the  half  of  an  octavo  page  in  length,  are  adduced,  and  arranged  to  bs 
cad ; and  as  each  species  has  its  peculiar  delivery  as  well  as  structure,  both  are  learned 
et  the  same  time ; 'part  third,  paragraphs ; or  sentences  in  their  connection  unfolding 
general  thoughts,  as  in  the  common  reading  books.  It  may  be  observed  that  the  seleo= 
Hons  of  sentences  in  part  second,  and  of  paragraphs  in  part  third,  comprise  seme  of  the 
finest  gems  in  the  language : distinguished  alike  for  beauty  of  thought  and  facility  of 
diction.  If  not  found  in  a school  book,  they  might  be  appropriately  called  “elegant 
extracts.” 

The  Elejcents  of  Reading  and  Oratory  closes  the  series  with  an  exhibition 
She  whole  theory  and  art  of  Elocution  exclusive  of  gesture.  It  contains,  besides  tho 
glassification  of  sentences  already  referred  to,  but  here  presented  with  fuller  statement 
And  illustration,  the  laws  of  punctuation  and  delivery  deduced  from  it:  the  whole  fol- 
lowed by  carefully  selected  pieces  for  sentential  analysis  and  vocal  practice. 


D.  Appleton  & Co.'s  Educational  Publications. 


PROP.  EDWARD  C.  MARSHALL. 

Book  of  Oratory  ; 

A New  Collection  of  Extracts  in  Prose,  Poetry,  and  Dialogue : contain 
ing  Selections  from  Distinguished  American  and  English  Orators,  Di- 
vines, and  Poets,  of  which  many  are  Specimens  of  the  Eloquence  oi 
Statesmen  of  the  Present  Day.  Eor  the  Use  of  Colleges,  Academies, 
and'Schools.  One  vol.  12mo.,  of  500  pages.  $1. 

This  work  contains  a larger  numher  of  elegant  extracts  than  any  similar  one,  from 
the  first  American  and  English  Authors,  among  whom  are  Webster,  Clay,  Everett,  Cal- 
houn, Wirt,  Randolph,  Prentiss,  Channing,  Dewey,  Burke,  Brougham,  Shakspeare,  By- 
ron., Soott,  Ilood,  Bryant,  and  Longfellow,  together  with  a complete  digest  of  specimens 
of  the  oratory  and  poetry  of  all  parts  of  the  Union. 

OPINIONS  OP  THE  PRESS. 

“ A large  and  admirable  selection  of  pieces  for  declamation,  copious  and  varied,  and 
well  chosen  with  reference  to  speaking.  The  range  of  selection  is  almost  universal,  at 
least  among  modern  writers  in  prose,  verse,  and  drama.  They  make  a spirited  collec- 
tion of  thought  and  rhetoric.  The  editor  is  a practical  teacher  of  elocution,  and  evidently 
has  a wide  acquaintance  with  literature.  It  is  as  good  a work  of  the  kind  as  we  ever 
saw.” — Evangelist. 

“ It  is  an  admirable  collection  of  pieces  for  declamation,  taken  principally  from  emi- 
nent American  orators.” — Tribime. 

“ This  is  an  exceedingly  judicious  and  tasteful  selection  of  extracts  from  various 
Kinds  of  composition,  designed  for  the  use  of  schools,  academies,  and  colleges.  A large 
proportion  of  the  extracts  are  from  our  most  distinguished  statesmen,  and  may  he  con- 
sidered a monument  of  honor  or  patriotism,  not  less  than  of  eloquence.  There  is  a 
freshness  and  grace  about  the  work  that  will  render  it  peculiarly  attractive.” — Albany 
Argus. 

This  is  an  excellent  reading  book  for  public  seminaries.  The  selections  are  made 
with  good  taste,  are  brief,  and  of  every  variety.  The  entire  field  of  American  speeches 
and  publications  ha3  been  explored  to  gather  them.  They  include  extracts  from  Chan- 
ning and  Dewey,  and  Beecher  and  Dow,  Jr.,  from  Webster,  Clay,  and  Cass,  from  Black 
Hawk  and  Bed  Jacket.  They  are  generally  specimens  of  elegant  composition,  ex- 
pressive of  patriotic  and  manly  thought,  and  pure  and  noble  sentiment.” — Journal  pj 
Commerce. 

“ It  contains  a copious  and  excellent  selection  from  the  best  orators,  divines,  and 
poets  of  England  and  America,  and  will  be  found  of  great  value  to  the  teacher  of  elocu- 
tion and  rhetoric.  It  will  doubtless  become  a standard  work  in  schools  and  colleges.” 

“ It  comprises  some  five  hundred  pages  of  the  best  selections  we  have  ever  seen 
compiled.  It  is  worthy  a place  in  every" family  library.” — New  Raven  Register. 

“ This  work  contains  a collection  of  extracts  in  prose  and  poetry,  with  selections  from 
the  speeches  of  the  most  eminent  American  and  English  orators,  suitable  for  exercises 
in  public  speaking.  It  is  designed  for  the  use  of  colleges,  academies,  and  schools,  and  is 
the  be5t  compilation  for  that  purpose  we  have  ever  seen.  The  selections  are  very  judi- 
ciously made,  and  are  calculated  to  interest  the  scholar,  as  well  as  to  furnish  him  with 
models  after  which  to  form  his  style.” — Evening  Post. 

“ This  compilation  for  the  use  of  students  in  elocution  has  been  prepared  with  great 
judgment  by  the  author,  who  has  had  much  experience  in  this  branch  of  education, 
having  been  for  many  years  a professor  of  elocution  at  West  Point.  A principal  feature 
in  this  work  is  that  the  selections  have  been  mostly  made  from  the  speeches  of  great 
orators  of  the  present  century,  and  many  of  them  are  specimens  of  the  eloquence  of  dis- 
tinguished statesmen  of  our  union.” — PHI.  Advertiser. 

“This  work  is  a complete  cyclopedia  of  specimens  of  English  and  American  oratory 
and  poetry,  for  the  use  of  colleges  and  schools,  selected  and  arranged  with  skill  and  good 
taste.  The  plah  of  the  work,  which  is  quite  original,  and  will  commend  itself  to  every 
mind,  is  to  present  the  best  specimens  which  can  be  obtained  of  the  oratory  and  poetry 
of  all  parts  of  the  Union,  and  of  living  authors.  This  has  not  been  attempted  so  thor- 
oughly in  any  similar  work,  and  as  this  is  decidedly  the  Book  of  Oratory  of  the  Union 
we  doubt  not  that  it  will  be  eminently  successful.” — Rome  Journal. 


PROD.  EDWARD  C.  MARSHALL. 

The  First  Book  of  Oratory . 

One  volume  12mo.  Price  62  cents. 


D.  Appleton  & Co.'s  Educational  Publications. 


PROF.  LATHAM. 

A Hand-Book  of  the  English  Language ; 

For  tho  Use  of  Students  of  the  Universities  and  Higher  Classes  of 
Schools.  12mo.  $1  25. 

Title  Is  an  abridgment,  or  a compendium,  by  tbe  author,  of  his  large  and  celebrated 
work  on  the  English  language ; and  must  prove  an  invaluable  aid  to  every  intelligent 
teacher  of  English  Grammar.  It  is  quite  unlike  any  work  that  has  heretofore  been  pub- 
lished among  us,  except  it  may  be  some  that  have  borrowed  largely  from  this  treasure* 
house  of  information  on  the  English  language.  It  is  divided  into  seven  Parts.  The 
first  and  second  parts,  occupying  nearly  80  pages,  are  devoted  to  the  history  and  analysis 
of  the  English  language,  designed  to  show  the  various  elements  of  which  this  language 
h composed,  and  the  manner  in  which  these  elements  were  introduced  gradually  into 
tie  language. 

These  parts  contain  the  results  of  very  extended  and  profound  study,  and  furnish  in- 
formation of  great  value  to  the  student.  After  this  follows  the  grammatical  parts  of  the 
work,  strictly  so  called,  in  which  the  learned  grammarian  treats  in  Part  III.  of  sounds, 
letters,  pronunciation,  and  spelling,  concluding  with  an  historical  sketch  of  the  English 
Alphabet:  in  Part  IV.,  of  Etymology,  under  its  various  usual  heads;  in  Part  V.,  of 
Syntax;  in  Part  VI.,  of  Prosody ; anil  in  Part  VII.,  of  dialects  of  the  English  language. 
Such  is  the  general  plan  of  a work  which  cannot  fail  to  receive  a cordial  welcome  among 
the  scholars  of  America,  coming  to  them,  as  it  does,  with  the  seal  of  English  approval 
on  it,  as  the  work  of  the  age  on  English  Grammar,  and  presenting,  as  it  does,  on  its  very 
face,  the  evidence  of  profound  and  patient  scholarship  and  philosophical  discrimination 
and  analysis. 

“ "We  should  he  glad  to  see  this  excellent  work  introduced  into  all  our  colleges  and 
higher  schools  of  learning.  The  ethnology  of  the  English  language  is  too  rarely  under- 
stood. Most  men  of  education  seem  to  think  their  native  tongue  a vulgar  study,  and 
confine  their  researches  to  the  dead  languages,  or  to  modern  dialects,  which  are  far  in- 
ferior in  variety  and  power  to  the  noble  idiom  in  which  Milton  sung  and  Addison  wrote. 
Ur.  Latham’s  profound  and  aente  investigations  have  enabled  him  to  throw  a flood  of 
light  on  the  derivations  of  words,  and  the  mutations  of  orthography.  His  larger  trea- 
tises have  given  him  a name  among  the  most  learned  ethnologists,  and  this  summary  of 
the  results  of  his  labors  will  make  him  more  widely  known  among  general  readers.”— 
Commercial,  Advertiser. 

“A  work  of  great  research,  much  learning,  and  to  every  thinking  scholar,  it  will  he 
e book  of  study.  The  Germanic  origin  of  tbe  English  language,  the  affinities  of  the 
English  with  other  languages,  a sketch  of  the  Alphabet,  a minute  investigation  of  the 
Et/mology  of  the  language,  &«.,  of  great  value  to  every  philologist — Observer. 


G.  F.  G-RAHAM 

English  Synonymes,  Classified  and  Explained; 

With  Practical  Exercises.  Designed  for  Schools  and  Private  Tuition. 
With  an  Introduction  and  Illustrative  Authorities,  by  Henry  Reed, 
LL.D.  12mo.  $1. 


" This  is  one  of  the  best  books  recently  published  in  the  department  of  language,  an3 
will  do  much  to  arrest  the  evil  of  making  too  common  use  of  inappropriate  words.  The 
work  is  well  arranged  for  classes,  and  can  be  made  a branch  of  common  school  study. 
The  excellent  and  elaborate  work  of  Crabb  is  adapted  to  the  private  study,  and  has  been 
used  by  many  scholars  and  professional  men  with  great  profit,  but  never  could  find  its 
place  in  the  school-room ; consequently,  this  important  department  of  study  has  been  left 
to  such  means  as  common  conversation  and  miscellaneous  reading  might  afford. 

“This  work  is  admirably  arranged.  The  Synonymes  are  treated  with  reference  to 
their  character,  as  generic  and  specific ; as  active  and  passive ; as  positive  and  negative ; 
%ad  as  miscellaneous  synonymes. 

“ 4.  class  in  this  book  should  be  organized  in  every  school,” — Teachers'  Advocate. 


D.  Appleton  & Co.'s  Eduoalioncol  Publications. 


PROP.  G-.  P.  QI7ACKENBOS. 

First  Lessons  in  Composition, 

In  which  the  Principles  of  the  Art  are  Developed,  in  connection  with 
the  Principles  of  Grammar ; embracing  fall  Directions  on  the  Subjocb 
of  Punctuation  : with  Copious  Exercises.  12mo.  45  cents. 

This  work  has  received  the  universal  approbation  of  Practical  Teachers  and  t&9 
{press  of  the  United  States. 

From  the  Principal , and  assistant  Teachers , of  the  Mechanics'  Institute , N.  K 
j “With  feelings  of  unfeigned  pleasure,  I have  examined  the  ‘First  Lessons  in  Coia- 
(position,’  by  G.  P.  Quackenbos. 

“This  work  possesses  the  rare  merit  of  combining  what  is  new  with  what  is  already 
{hmiliar  in  publications  of  the  science  upon  which  it  treats.  The  matter  which  is  com- 
prised in  the  first  fifty  pages  is  invaluable.  If  the  pupil  be  faithfully  trained  in  tnesa 
preliminary  exercises,  he  will  be  amply  prepared  to  appreciate  the  principles  detailed  i& 
the  latter  part  of  the  volume.  It  is,  without  question,  the  best  treatise  that  has  ap. 
peared  on  the  subject  which  it  professes  to  illustrate,  as  every  part  can  be  made  avails 
file  to  pupils  by  the  judicious  teacher;  and  it  appeal's  to  be  admirably  adapted  to  maiA 
tlie  present  requirements  of  schools. 

J.  T.  BERGEN,  Professor  of  Belles-Lettres. 

M.  C.  TRACY,  Principal  of  Mea.  Inst.  School, 

J.  OVERACRE. 

“This  book  presents  an  exceedingly  simple  method  of  learning  the  principles  os 
Grammar,  and  it  is  so  completely  adapted  even  to  the  understanding  of  the  youngest 
pupil,  that  it  cannot  fail  to  he  a great  assistant  to  the  teachers  of  schools.  It  is  pre- 
pared with  much  skill  and  judgment,  and  from  the  suggestions  of  long  experience.  It 
will  he  found  to  possess  a more  than  ordinary  intrinsic  value.” — jST,  Y.  Courier  & 
•Enquirer. 


PROF.  JOHN  W.  S.  HOWS, 

The  Shakspearian  Leader; 

A Collection  of  the  most  approved.  Plays  of  Slinkspeare,  carefully  re 
vised  ; with  Introductory  and  Explanatory  Notes,  and  a Memoir  of  the 
Author.  Prepared  expressly  for  the  use  of  Classes  and  the  Family 
Beading  Circle.  12mo.  $1  25. 

“At  a period  when  the  fame  of  Shakspeare  is  “ striding  the  world  like  a colossus* 
nd  editions  of  his  works  are  multiplied  with  a profusion  that  testifies  the  desire  avals, 
seed  in  all  classes  of  society  to  read  and  study  his  imperishable  compositions, — there 
needs,  perhaps,  but  little  apology  for  the  following  selection  of  his  works,  prepared  ex- 
pressly to  render  them  unexceptionable  for  the  use  of  Schools,  and  acceptable  for  Family 
reading.  Apart  from  the  fact,  that  Shakspeare  is  the  “well  spring”  from  which  may  ba 
traced  the  origin  of  the  purest  poetry  in  our  language, — a long  course  of  professional  ex- 
perience has  satisfied  me  that  a necessity  exists  for  the  addition  of  a work  like  tho 
present,  to  our  stock  of  Educational  Literature.  His  writings  are  peculiarly  adapted  fo? 
the  purpose  of  Elocutionary  exercise,  when  the  system  of  instruction  pursued  by  tho 
Teacher  is  based  upon  the  true  principle  of  the  art,  viz- — a careful  analysis  of  the  struc- 
ture and  meaning  of  language,  rather  than  a servile  adherence  to  the  arbitrary  and  me 
phanical  rules  of  Elocution. 

“ To  impress  upon  the  mind  of  the  pupil  that  words  are  the  exposition  of  thonglfe 
end  that  in  reading,  or  speaking,  every  shade  of  thought  and  feeling  has  ils  appropriate 
shade  of  modulated  tone,  ought  to  be  the  especial  aim  of  every  Teacher;  and  an  author 
like  Shakspeare,  whose  every  line  embodies  a volume  of  meaning,  should  surely  form 
one  of  our  Elocutionary  Text  Books.  * * * Still,  in  preparing  a selection  of  his 
Works  for  the  express  purpose  contemplated  in  my  design,  I have  not  hesitated  to  exer- 
eise  a severe  revision  of  his  language,  beyond  that  adopted  in  any  similar  undertaking 
— “ Bowdler’s  Family  Shakspeare”  not  even  excepted ; — and  simply,  ‘because  I praoti- 
call;/  know  the  impossibility  of  introducing  Shakspeare  as  a Class  Book,  or  as  a satisfac- 
tory Reading  Book  for  Families  without  this  precautionary  revision.”— -Extract  from 
the  Preface. 

o 


D.  Appleton  & Co.'s  Educational  Publications. 


PROP.  E.  F.  BOJESEN. 

A Manual  of  Grecian  and  Roman  Antiquities. 

Translated  from  the  German.  Edited,  with  Notes,  and  a complete 

Series  of  Questions,  by  the  Kev.  Thomas  K.  Arnold,  M.  A.  1 vol.  12mo. 

Price  §1. 

“The  present  Manual  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities  is  far  superior  to  any  thing 
©s  the  same  topics  as  yet  offered  to  the  American  public.  A principal  Eeviav  of  Gor- 
Esany  says : 

“ 1 Small  as  the  compass  of  it  is,  we  may  confidently  affirm  that  it  is  a great  improve* 
meat  on  all  preceding  works  of  the  kind.  We  no  longer  meet  with  the  wretched  old 
method,  in  which  subjects  essentially  distinct  are  herded  together,  and  connected  sub- 
jects disconnected,  but  have  a simple,  systematic  arrangement,  by  which  the  reader 
easily  receives  a clear  representation  of  Roman  life.  We  no  longer  stumble  against 
countless  errors  in  detail,  which  though  long  ago  assailed  and  extirpated  by  Niebuhr  and 
others,  have  found  their  last  place  of  refuge  in  our  Manuals.  The  recent  investigations 
of  philologists  have  been  extensively,  but  carefully  and  circumspectly  used.  The  con- 
ciseness and  precision  which  the  author  has  every  where  prescribed  to  himself,  prevents 
the  superficial  observer  from  perceiving  the  essential  superiority  of  the  book  to  its  pre- 
decessors, but  whoever  subjects  it  to  a careful  examination  will  discover  this  on  every 
page.’  ” — Southern  Lit.  Gazette. 

From  Prof  essor  Lincoln,  of  Bi  own  University. 

“I  found  on  my  table,  after  a short  absence  from  home,  your  edition  of  Bojesen 8 
Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities.  Pray  accept  my  acknowledgments  for  it.  I am  agree- 
ably surprised  to  find  on  examining  it,  that  within  so  very  narrow  a compass  for  so  com- 
prehensive a subject,  the  book  contains  so  much  valuable  matter ; and,  indeed,  so  far  as 
I see,  omits  noticing  no  topic  essential.  It  will  be  a very  useful  book  in  Schools  and 
Colleges,  and  is  far  superior  to  any  thing  that  I know  of  the  same  kind.  Besides  being 
cheap  and  accessible  to  all  Students,  it  has  the  great  merit  of  discussing  its  topics  in  a 
consecutive  and  connected  manner.” 

Extract  of  a Letter  from  Professor  Tyler , of  Amherst  College. 

“ I have  never  found  time  till  lately  to  look  over  Bojesen’s  Antiquities,  oi  which  yon 
were  kind  enough  to  send  me  a copy.  I think  it  an  excellent  book  ; learned,  accurate, 
concise,  and  perspicuous ; well  adapted  for  use  in  the  Academy  of  the  College,  and  com- 
prehending in  a small  compass  more  that  i3  valuable  on  the  subject  than  many  extended 
treatises.” 


M.  VICTOR  COUSIN. 

A Course  of  the  History  of  Modern  Philosophy. 

Translated  by  O.  W.  Wright.  Two  volumes  8vo.  Price  $3. 

'iliis  is  the  ablest  and  most  popular  of  all  Cousin’s  works.  It  contains  a full  expo- 
sition  of  Eclecticism,  by  its  founder  and  ablest  supporter;  gives  a collected  account  oi 
the  history  of  philosophy  from  the  earliest  times ; makes  a distinct  classification  of  sys- 
tems ; affords  brief  yet  intelligible  glimpses  into  the  interior  of  almost  ev^-y  schotd, 
whether  ancient  or  modern  ; and  a detailed  analysis  of  Locke,  which  unanswerably  ro- 
tates a sensualistic  theory  that  has  borne  so  many  hitter  fruits  of  irreligion  and  atheism 

“ M.  Cousin  is  the  greatest  philosopher  of  France.” — Sir  William  Hamilton. 

“ A writer,  whose  pointed  periods  have  touched  the  chords  of  modern  society,  and 
< rilled  through  the  minds  of  thousands  in  almost  every  quarter  of  the  civilized  world.” 
- Edinburgh  Review. 

“ The  most  accomplished  and  aentest  thinker  of  modern  times.”  — American 
Beviow. 

The  above  work  has,  in  the  original,  for  some  time  been  a text-book  of  philoso- 
phy at  Dsblin  University,  and  at  Cambridge,  England, 
u 


D.  Appleton  & Co.'s  Educational  Publications. 


PROF.  WILHELM  PTJTZ. 

Manual  of  Ancient  Geography  and  History. 

Translated,  from  the  German.  Edited  by  the  Eev.  Thomas  K.  Abnol®, 
M.  A.  12mo.  Price  $1. 

“At  no  period  haa  History  presented  such  strong  claims  upon  the  attention  of  the 
foamed,  as  at  the  present  day;  and  to  no  people  were  its  lessons  of  such  value  as  to 
those  of  the  United  States.  With  no  past  of  our  own  to  revert  to,  the  great  masses  of 
our  better  educated  are  tempted  to  overlook  a science,  which  comprehends  all  others  in 
!ts  grasp.  To  prepare  a text-hook,  which  shall  present  a full,  clear,  and  accurate  view 
sf  the  ancient  world,  its  geography,  its  political,  civil,  social,  religious  state,  must  be  tha 
result  only  of  vast  industry  and  learning.  Our  examination  of  the  present  volume  leads 
us  to  believe,  that  as  a text-hook  on  ancient  history,  for  Colleges  and  Academies,  it  is 
the  best  compend  yet  published.  It  bears  marks  in  its  methodical  arrangement,  and 
condensation  of  materials,  of  the  untiring  patience  of  German  scholarship ; and  in  its 
progress  through  the  English  and  American  press,  has  been  adapted  for  acceptable  use 
In  our  best  institutions.  A noticeable  feature  of  the  book,  is  its  complete  list  of 
* sources  of  information’  upon  the  nations  which  it  describes.  This  will  be  an  invalu* 
able  aid  to  the  student  in  his  future  course  of  reading.” 


PROF.  WILHELM  PUTZ. 

Hand-Book  of  Mediaeval  Geography  and  His- 
tory. Translated  from  the  German,  by  Eev.  E.  B.  Padl,  M.  A.  12mo. 
Price  75  cents. 

“The  characteristics  of  this  volume  are— Precision,  condensation,  and  luminous  ar- 
rangement. It  is  precisely  what  it  pretends  to  be — a manual,  a sure  and  conscientious 
guide  for  the  student  through  the  crooks  and  angles  of  Medieval  history.  * * * * 

All  the  great  principles  of  this  extended  Period  are  carefully  laid  down,  and  the  most 
important  facts  skilfully  grouped  around  them.  There  is  no  period  of  History  for  which 
it  is  more  difficult  to  prepare  a work  like  this,  and  none  for  which  it  is  so  much  needed. 
The  leading  facts  are  well  established,  hut  they  are  scattered  over  an  immense  space 
To  reduce  such  materials  to  a clear  and  definite  form  is  a task  of  no  small  difficulty,  and 
in  which  partial  success  deserves  great  praise.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  it  haa 
never  been  so  well  done  within  a compass  so  easily  mastered,  as  In  the  little  volum» 
which  is  now  offered  to  the  public.” 


PROF.  WILHELM  PUTZ. 

Manual  of  Modern  Geography  and  History ; 

Translated  from  the  German.  Eevised  and  corrected.  12mo.  $1  5®. 

“ This  volume  completes  the  series  of  the  author’s  works  on  geography  and  history. 
First  came  his  consideration  of  ancient  and  mediaeval  geography  and  history ; and  this 
continues  the  subject,  from  the  conquest  of  the  Byzantine  empire  by  the  Turks,  down 
&>  the  present  time.  Every  important  fact  of  the  period,  comprehensive  as  it  is  both  in 
geography  and  history,  is  presented  in  a concise  yet  clear  and  connected  manner ; so  as 
to  be  of  value,  not  only  as  a text-book  for  students,  but  to  the  general  reader  for  refer- 
ence. Although  the  facts  are  greatly  condensed,  as  of  necessity  they  must  be,  yet  they 
are  presented  with  so  much  distinctness  as  to  produce  a fixed  impression  on  the  mind. 
It  is  also  reliable  as  the  work  of  an  indefatigable  German  scholar,  for  correct  information 
delating  to  the  progress  and  changes  of  states  and  nations— literature,  the  sciences,  and 
the  arts — and  all  that  combines  in  modern  civilization.  The  portion  relating  to  our  own 
continent  has  been  carefully  revised,  so  as  to  free  it  from  mistakes  which  all  foreigners 
pre  liable  to  make  when  speaking  of  our  complex  institutions  of  government  Appended 
to  the  work  is  a chronological  table ; and  also  an  extended  series  of  questions,  aesig:  ed 
to  facilitate  the  u*e  of  the  work  in  the  schools.” 

10 


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G-SORGS  R.  PERSISTS,  A M„ 

Professor  of  Mathematics  and  Principal  of  the  State  Normal  Sckoo!. 

Course  of  Mathematical  Works. 

I.  PRIMARY  ARITHMETIC.  Price  21  cts. 

The  first  part  is  devoted  to  Mental  Exercises,  and  the  second  to  Exercises  on  tin 
Safe  cmd  Blackboard. 

It  has  been  received  with  more  popularity  than  any  Arithmetic  heretofore  ssned. 

II.  ELEMENTARY  ARITHMETIC.  Price  42  cts. 

Has  recently  been  carefuily  revised  and  enlarged.  It  will  be  found  concise,  yet  lucid. 

In  this  work  all  of  the  examples  or  problems  are  strictly  practical , made  up  as 
they  are  in  a groat  measure  of  important  statistics  and  valuable  facts  in  history  and  phi- 
losophy, which  are  thus  unconsciously  learned  in  acquiring  a knowledge  of  the  Arith- 
metic. 

Wherever  this  work  is  presented,  the  publishers  have  heard  hut  one  opinion  In  >e- 
gnrd  to  its  merits,  and  that  most  favorable. 

III.  PRACTICAL  ARITHMETIC. 

The  Practical  Arithmetic  is  designed  not  to  supply  the  place  of  the  Elementary 
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IV.  HIGHER  ARITHMETIC.  Price  84  cts. 

The  present  edition  has  been  revised,  many  subjects  re-written,  and  much  new  mat- 
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the  more  difficult  operations  and  interesting  properties  of  numbers  are  fully  discussed. 
The  work  is  what  its  name  purports,  a Highee  Arithmetic. 

Y.  ELEMENTS  OF  ALGEBRA.  Price  84  cts. 

This  work,  is  an  introduction  to  the  Author's  “ Treatise  on  Algebra.” 

VI.  TREATISE  ON  ALGEBRA.  Price  $1  50. 

This  work  contains  the  higher  parts  of  Algebra  usually  taught  in  Ooileges ; a new 
method  of  cubic  and  higher  equations  as  well  as  the  Theorem  of  Sturm,  by  which  w« 
may  at  once  determine  the  number  of  real  roots  of  any  Algebraic  Equation,  with  muoh 
more  ease  than  by  any  previously  discovered  method. 

In  the  present  revised  edition , one  entire  chapter  on  the  subject  of  Continues 
Fractions  has  been  added 

VII.  ELEMENTS  OF  GEOMETRY,  with  Practical  Applications.  |1. 

The  author  has  added  throughout  the  entire  Work,  Practical  Applications,  which. 
In  the  estimation  of  Teachers,  is  an  important  consideration. 

An  eminent  Professor  of  Mathematics,  in  speaking  of  this  work,  says:  “We  have 
adopted  it,  because  it  follows  more  closely  the  best  model  of  pure  geometrical  reasoning 
which  ever  has  been,  and  perhaps  ever  will  be  exhibited. 

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And  it3  Application  to  Mensuration  and  Land  Surveying.  Accompanied  with  all  the 
accessary  Logarithmic  and  Trigonometric  Tables.  1 vol.  8vo. 

It  is  a commendable  feature  in  all  the  mathematical  works  of  thi£  author,  that  they 
are  prepared  In  such  a manner  as  will  lead  the  pupil  to  rely  upon  his  own  abilities  in 
studying  the  principles  they  contain ; commencing  with  the  simplest  elements  he  ie  led 
cn  step  by  step  throughout.  This  volume  is  prepared  upon  the  same  logical  system 
Jt  contains  muoh  that  is  new  and  valuable,  especially  on  the  subject  of  jand-surveying 
13 


D.  Appleton  & Cods  Educational  Publications. 


PROP.  ALEXANDER  REID,  A.  M. 

A Dictionary  of  the  English  Language ; 

Containing  the  Pronunciation,  Etymology,  and  Explanation  of  all  Words 
authorized  by  Eminent  Writers;  to  which  are  added,  a Vocabulary  <4 
the  Roots  of  English  Words,  and  an  Accented  List  of  Greek,  Latin,  and 
Scripture  Proper  Names.  With  a Critical  Preface,  by  Henry  Reek, 
Professor  of  English  Literature  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
an  Appendix,  showing  the  Pronunciation  of  nearly  3000  of  the  most 
important  Geographical  Names.  One  volume  12mo.,  of  nearly  600 
pages,  bound  in  leather.  Price  $1. 

Among  the  wants  of  our  time  was  a good  dictionary  of  our  own  language,  espe- 
.sslly  adapted  for  academies  and  schools.  The  books  ■which  have  long  been  in  use  were 
of  little  value  to  the  junior  students,  being  too  concise  in  the  definitions,  and  unmethod- 
ical in  the  arrangement.  Keid’s  English  Dictionary  was  compiled  expressly  to  develope 
the  precise  analogies  and  various  properties  of  the  authorized  words  in  general  use,  by 
the  standard  authors  and  orators  who  use  our  vernacular  tongue. 

Exclusive  of  the  large  number  of  proper  names  which  are  appended,  this  Dictionary 
includes  four  especial  improvements — and  when  their  essential  value  to  the  student  is 
considered,  the  sterling  character  of  the  work  as  a hand-book  of  our  language  will  be  in 
stantly  perceived. 

The  primitive  word  is  distinguished  by  a larger  type ; and  when  there  are  any  deriva- 
tives from  it,  they  follow  in  alphabetical  order,  and  the  part  of  speech  is  appended,  thus 
furnishing  a complete  classification  of  all  the  connected  analogous  words  of  the  same 
species. 

“With  this  facility  to  comprehend  accurately  the  determinate  meaning  of  the  English 
word,  is  conjoined  a rich  illustration  for  the  linguist  The  derivation  of  all  the  primitive 
words  is  distinctly  given,  and  the  phrases  of  the  languages  whence  they  are  deduced, 
whether  composite  or  simple ; so  that  the  student  of  foreign  languages,  both  ancient  and 
modern,  by  a reference  to  any  word,  can  ascertain  tbe  source  whence  it  has  been  adopted 
into  our  own  form  of  speech.  This  is  a great  acquisition  to  the  person  who  is  anxious 
to  use  words  in  their  utmost  clearness  of  meaning. 

To  these  advantages  is  subjoined  a Vocabulary  of  the  Boots  of  English  "Words,  which 
is  of  peculiar  value  to  the  collegian.  The  fifty  pages  which  it  includes,  furnish  the  lin- 
guist with  a widespread  field  of  research,  equally  amusing  and  instructive.  There  is 
also  added  an  Accented  List,  to  the  number  of  fifteen  thousand,  of  Greek,  Latin,  and 
Scripture  Proper  Names. 

recommendations. 

Reid’s  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language  is  an  admirable  book  for  the  use  of 
schools.  Its  plans  combine  a greater  number  of  desirable  conditions  for  such  a work, 
than  any  with  which  I am  acquainted:  and  it  seems  to  me  to  be  executed  in  general 
with  great  judgment,  fidelity,  and  accuracy. 

C.  S.  HENBY, 

Professor  of  Philosophy.  History,  and  Belles-Lettres, 
in  the  Unmersny  of  the  City  of  Hei6-  York. 

Beid’s  Dictionary  of  tbe  English  Language  is  compiled  upon  sound  principles,  and 
with  judgment  and  accuracy.  It  has  the  merit,  too,  of  combining  much  more  than  is 
usually  looked  for  in  Dictionaries  of  small  size,  and  will,  I believe,  be  found  excellent  aa 
a convenient  manual,  for  general  use  and  reference,  and  also  for  various  purposes  of  edu- 
cation. HENBY  BEED, 

Professor  of  English.  Literature  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 

After  a careful  examination,  I am  convinced  that  Beid’s  English  Dictionary  has 
Strong  claims  upon  the  attention  of  teachers  generally.  It  is  of  convenient  size,  beauti- 
fully executed,  and  seems  well  adapted  to  the  use  of  scholars,  from  the  common  school 
to  the  university.  D.  H.  CHASE, 

Principal  of  Preparatory  School. 

Middletown,  Ct. 

After  a thorough  examination  of  “ Beid’s  English  Dictionary,”  I may  safely  say  tli&t 
I consider  it  superior  to  any  of  the  School  Dictionaries  with  which  I am  acquainted. 
Its  accurate  and  concise  definitions,  and  a vocabulary  of  the  roots  of  English  words, 
drawn  from  an  author  of  such  authority  as  Bosworth,  are  not  among  the  least  of  its  ex- 
cellencies, M.  M.  PABKS, 

Chaplain  and  Professor  of  Ethics,  U.  8.  Military  Academy,  West  Point, 

14 


D.  Appleton  & Co.'s  Educational  Publications, 


W C.  TATLOIL 

<4  Manual  of  Ancient  and  Modern  History ; 

Comprising — 

1 Ancient  Histoey,  containing  the  Political  History,  Geographical  Position,  sad 
Social  State  of  the  Principal  Nations  of  Antiquity,  carefully  digested  from  the  Ancieul 
Writers,  and  illustrated  by  the  discoveries  of  Modern  Travellers  and  Scholars. 

IL  Modern  History,  containing  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  principal  Enropcaa 
Nations,  their  Political  History,  and  ihe  changes  in  their  Social  Condition : with  a Hi*. 
Scry  of  the  Colonies  founded  by  Europeans. 

By  TV.  Cooke  Taylor,  LL.  D.,  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  Revised 
with  Additions  on  American  History,  by  C.  S.  Henry,  D.  D.,  Professor 
of  History  in  the  University  of  N.  Y. ; and  Questions  adapted  for  th» 
Use  of  Schools  and  Colleges.  One  handsome  vol.  8vo.,  of  000  pages, 
§2  25 ; Ancient  History  in  1 vol.,  §1  25 ; Modern  History  in  X voi., 
$1  50. 

“ This  is  by  far  the  best  text-book  of  History  ever  issued.  It  is  intended  mainly  for 
the  use  of  schools ; but  it  cannot  fail  to  be  of  the  highest  service  to  all  who  wish  to  study 
or  read  History  systematically.  It  is  in  two  parts ; the  first  presenting  the  political 
history,  geographical  description,  and  social  state  of  all  the  leading  nations  of  antiquity; 
snd_tke  second  giving,  still  more  fully,  an  outline  of  modern  history  upon  the  same 
plan.  It  will  he  exceedingly  useful  to  all  classes.  Those  who  wish  to  enter  upon  a 
thorough  study  of  history,  will  find  in  it  an  invaluable  guide  to  their  researches.  It  will 
give  them  an  admirable  framework  whereon  to  build  tbeir  structure  of  historical  know- 
ledge. Those  who  wish  merely  to  become  familiar  with  the  most  important  events  in 
the" annals  of  the  various  nations  that  have  existed,  or  do  still  exist,  will  find  in  it  nil  they 
wish  to  know,  completely  digested  and  well  arranged. 

“ The  work  was  originally  prepared  by  Dr.  Taylor,  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  whoso 
eminent  qualifications  for  so  important  a task,  are  well  known.  A chapter  on  A merican 
History,  to  render  it  complete,  has  been  added  by  Prof.  C.  S.  Henry,  of  the  C niversit7 
in  this  city,  who  has  also  exercised  a general  editorial  supervision  over  the  work. 

“The  hook  is  well  calculated  to  introduce  the  study  of  history  more  generally  into 
the  colleges  and  higher  schools  of  this  country;  and  will  do  much,  we  doubt  not,  to  ex- 
cite a wicier  and  deeper  interest  in  this  greatly  neglected,  bat  most  important  branch  of 
education.  It  is  well  printed,  and  admirably  calculated  for  universal  circulation.” 


M.  GUIZOT. 

General  History  of  Civilization  in  Europe , 

From  the  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  to  the  French  Revolution.  With 
Notes,  by  C.  S.  Henry,  D.  D.  12mo.  75  cents. 

* To  say  any  thing  of  the  great  value  of  this  admirable  work  of  AS-.  Guizot  is  quits 
Unnecessary.  It  is  already  well  known  to  all  the  literary  men  of  our  country  and  the 
world,  and  its  intrinsic  merits  have  made  it  a text-book  in  many  literary  institutions  of 
the  UnitedStates.  Written  in  a clear  and  lively  style,  it  has  every  where  proved  highly 
attractive.” — Commercial  Advertiser. 

“The  present  work  was  originally  given  to  the  world  in  a series  of  lectures  pro- 
Bounced  at  the  old  Sohorne  College  in  Paris;  and  from  the  date  of  its  publication, 
ranked  its  author  high  among  the  greatest  philosophic  historians,  nis  explanations  of 
historical  phenomena  are  beautiful,  lucid  and  logical,  and  we.  do  not  know  a better  work 
than  the  present  to  guide  the  inquirer  in  his  studies  of  the  annals  of  nations — such  s 
fin*,  model  does  he  here  present  of  weighing,  judging,  and  appreciating  details.1'  — 
Vourier  & Enquirer, 

n 


D.  Appleton  & Coda  Educational  Publications. 


RICHMALL  MAGNALL 

Historical  and  Miscellaneous  Questions. 

From  the  Eighty-fourth  London  Edition.  With  large  Additions  em- 
bracing the  Elements  of  Mythology,  Astronomy,  Architecture,  Heraldry^ 
&c.  Adapted  for  Schools  in  the  United  States.  By  Mrs.  Julia  Law- 
rence. Illustrated  with  numerous  Engravings.  12mo.  $1. 

HEADS  OF  CONTENTS. 

A Short  View  of  Scripture  History,  from  the  Creation  to  the  Eetum  of  the  JewfH» 
Questions  from  the  Early  Ages  to  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar — Miscellaneous  Questions  in 
Grecian  History— Miscellaneous  Questions  in  General  History,  chiefly  Ancient — Ques- 
tions containing  a Sketch  of  the  most  remarkable  Events  from  the  Christian  Era  to  th* 
close  of  the  Eighteenth  Century — Miscellaneous  Questions  in  Roman  History — Questions 
in  English  History,  from  the  Invasion  of  Caesar  to  the  Reformation — Continuation  of  Ques- 
tions in  English  History  from  the  Reformation  to  the  Present  Time — Abstract  of  Early 
British  History — Abstract  of  English  Reigns  from  the  Conquest— Abstract  of  the  Scottish 
Reigns — Abstract  of  the  French  Reigns,  from  Pharamond  to  Philip  I. — Continuation  of 
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'•to  awaken  a spirit  of  laudable  curiosity  in  young  minds,’  and  to  satisfy  that  curiosity 
when  awakened.” — Commercial  Advertiser . 


MRS.  MARKHAM. 

History  of  England ; 

From  the  Invasion  of  Julius  Caesar  to  the  Reign  of  Queen  Victoria.  is 
New  Edition,  with  Questions  adapted  for  Schools  in  the  United  States. 
By  Eliza  Bobbins,  Author  of  “ American  Popular  Lessons,”  “ Poetry 
for  Schools,”  &c.  One  volume  12mo.  Price  75  cents. 

“There  is  nothing  more  needed  in  onr  schools  than  good  histories;  not  the  dry  com.' 
pends  in  present  use,  but  elementary  works  that  shall  suggest  the  moral  uses  of  history, 
and  tho  providence  of  God,  manifest  in  the  affairs  of  men. 

“Mrs.  Markham’s  History  was  used  by  that  model  for  all  teachers,  the  late  Hr.  Ar- 
nold, master  of  the  great  English  school  at  Rugby,  and  agrees  in  its  character  with  his 
enlightened  and  pious  views  of  teaching  history.  It  is  now  several  years  since  I adapted 
this  history  to  the  form  and  price  acceptable  in  the  schools  in  the  United  States.  I have 
recently  revised  it,  and  trust  that  it  may  be  extensively  serviceable  in  education. 

“ The  principal  alterations  from  the  original  are  a new  and  more  convenient  division 
of  paragraphs,  and  entire  omission  of  the  conversations  annexed  to  the  chapters.  In 
the  place  of  these  I have  affixed  questions  to  every  page  that  may  at  once  facilitate  tho 
work  of  the  teacher  and  the  pupil.  The  rational  and  moral  features  of  this  hook  first 
commended  itself  to  me,  and  I have  used  it  successfully  with  my  own  scholars.— Ear 
tract  from,  the  American  Editor's  Preface. 


THOMAS  KEIGHTLSY 

Mythology  of  Ancient  Greece  and  Italy . 

For  the  Use  of  Schools.  16mo.  42  cents. 

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terits, in  a very  compendious  and  convenient  form,  every  thing  relating  to  the  subject, 
ef  importance  to  the  young  student.’ 

12 


D.  Appleton  & Co.'s  Educational  Publications. 


PROFESSOR  CHAMPim. 

A Concise  Practical  Grammar  of  the  English 

Language.  With  Exercises  in  Analysis  and  Parsing.  One  yoI.  16mo. 
84  cents. 

This  Manual  contains  a more  concise,  more  simple,  more  philosophical,  ami  a better 
arranged  and  illustrated  statement  of  the  principles  of  English  Grammar,  than  most  of 
the  Manuals  in  use. 


PROF.  J.  JiEGER. 

Class  Book  of  Zoology. 

Designed  to  afford  to  Pupils  in  Common  School  and  Academies  a 
Knowledge  of  tlie  Animal  Kingdom  : with  a List  of  the  Different  Spe- 
cies found  in  the  State  of  New-York.  The  whole  scientifically  arranged, 
18mo.  42  cents. 

From  Prof.  Tayler  Lewis. 

“Your  Class-Book  of  Zoology  ought  to  be  introduced  into  all  the  public  and  private 
rchools  of  this  city,  and  I should  rejoice  for  your  own  sake,  and  for  the  sake  of  sound 
science,  to  hear  of  its  obtaining  the  public  patronage  which  it  deserves.” 

From.  Dr.  T.  Romeyn  Beck , of  Albany. 

The  copy  of  your  book  of  which  you  advised  me  last  week,  reached  me  this  morn- 
ing. I am  pleased  with  its  contents.  Of  its  accuracy  I can  have  no  question,  knowing 
your  long  and  ardent  devotion  to  the  study  of  Natural  History.  It  will  be  peculiarly 
useful  to  the  young  pupil,  in  introducing  him  to  a knowledge  of  our  native  animals.” 

From  Rev.  Dr.  Campbell , Albany. 

“Your  ‘Class-Book1  reached  me  safely,  and  I am  delighted  with  it;  but  what  ia 
more  to  the  purpose,  gentlemen  who  know  something  about  Zoology  are  delighted  with 
It,  sucli  as  Dr.  Beck  and  Professor  Cook,  of  our  Academy.  I have  no  doubt  that  we 
shall  introduce  it” 


F.  IT.  OTIS. 

Easy  Lessons  in  Landscape. 

With.  Instructions  for  the  Lead  Pencil  and  Crayon.  A Complete  and 
Easy  Guide  from  simple  Lines  through  the  intricacies  of  Foliage — Light 
and  Shade  Perspective — and  Sketching  from  Nature  ; each  being  treated 
in  an  original,  concise,  and  familiar  manner,  so  that  the  Pupil  is  enabled 
successfully  to  pursue  the  Study  of  Drawing  without  the  aid  of  a 
Teacher.  Complete  in  Six  Numbers,  price  $1  75  ; bound,  §2  25. 


F.  FT.  OTIS. 

Studies  of  Animals. 

With  Instructions  for  the  Lead  Pencil  and  Crayon.  Composed  of 
Spirited  Sketches  of  Single  Figures  and  Groups  from  Nature ; with 
Choice  Selections  from  some  of  the  most  distinguished  Animal  Painters: 
accompanied  with  copious  Instructions.  Complete  in  Five  Numbers. 
In  Numbers,  complete,  price  $1  75 ; bound,  $2  25. 

ELEMENTARY  DRAWING  CARDS.  Landscape,  12 Lessons ; Animals,  12 Leeacaus 
Price,  each  set,  25  cents. 


15 


D.  Appleton  & Co.'s  Educational  Publications. 


PROP.  S.  CHASE. 

A Treatise  on  Algebra. 

For  tlie  Use  of  Schools  and  Colleges.  12mo.  Price  $1, 

“The  Treatise  which  Prof.  Chase  has  written  for  the  use  of  schools  and  ooliegad* 
poems  to  us  to  be  superior  in  not  a few  respects  to  the  school  Algebras  in  common  use. 
The  object  of  the  writer  -was,  “to  exhibit  such  a view  of  the  principles  of  Algebra,  a? 
shall  best  prepare  the  student  for  the  further  pursuit  of  mathematical  studies.”  "lie  hasE 
wo  think,  succeeded  in  this  attempt.  His  book  is  more  complete  in  its  explanations  of 
the  principles  of  Algebra  than  any  text-book  with  which  we  are  acquainted.  The  ex- 
amples for  practice  are  pertinent,  and  are  sufficiently  numerous  for  the  illustration  of 
each  rule. 

“ Mr.  C.  has  avoided,  by  his  plan,  the  common  fault  of  text-books  on  Algebra— use- 
lessly numerous  examples,  and  meagreness  of  explanation  as  respects  the  principles  cl 
the  science.  The  order  of  treatment  is  judicious.  Mr.  0.  has  addod  a table  of  formula, 
for  convenience  of  reference,  in  which  are  brought  into  one  view  the  principles  exhi- 
bited in  different  parts  of  the  book.  It  will  be  of  great  use  to  the  student.  We  think 
the  book  is  well  adapted  to  schools  and  colleges,  into  many  of  which  it  will,  no  doubt 
be  introduced.” — O/i.  Recorder. 

PROP.  ALPHEUS  CROSBY. 

First  Lessons  in  Geometry , 

Upon  the  Model  of  Colburn’s  First  Lessons  in  Arithmetic.  Price  8?  5 
cents. 

This  little  work  is  admitted  to  he  the  best  elementary  text-book  on  the  subject,  and 
fe  very  extensively  introduced. 

R.  G BURNHAM,  M.  A. 

Arithmetic  for  Common  Schools  & Academies. 

PAET  FIRST  is  a work  on  Mental  Arithmetic.  The  philosophy  of  the  mode  of 
teaching  adopted  in  this  work  is:  Commence  where  the  child  commences,  and  proceed 
as  the  child  proceeds;  fall  in  with  his  own  mode  of  arriving  at  truth ; aid  him  to  think 
for  himself,  and  do  not  the  thinking  for  him.  Hence  a series  of  exercises  are  given,  by 
which  the  child  is  made  familiar  with  the  process,  which  he  has  already  gone  through 
■with  in  acquiring  his  present  knowledge.  These  exercises  interest  the  child,  and  pre- 
pare him  for  future  rapid  progress.  The  plan  is  so  clearly  unfolded  by  illustration  and 
example,  that  lie  who  follows"it  can  scarcely  fail  to  secure,  on  the  part  of  his  pupils,  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  subject.  Price  20  cents. 

PART  SECOND  is  a work  on  Written  Arithmetic.  It  is  the  result  of  a long  ex 
pevience  in  teaching,  and  contains  sufficient  of  Arithmetic  for  the  practical  business 
purposes  of  life.  It  illustrates  more  fully  and  applies  more  extendsclly  and  practically 
the  principle  of  Cancellation  than  any  other  Arithmetical  treatise.  This  method  as  hero 
employed  in  connection  with  the  ordinary,  furnishes  a variety  of  illustrations,  which 
cannot  fail  to  interest  and  instruct  the  scholar.  It  is  a prominent  idea  throughout,  to 
impress  upon  the  mind  of  the  scholar  the  truth  that  he  will  never  discover,  nor  need  a 
Bew  principle  beyond  the  simple  rules.  The  pupil  is  shown,  bya  variety  of  new  modes 
of  illustration,  that  new  names  and  new  positions  introduce  no  new  principle,  but  that 
they  are  merely  matters  of  convenience.  Fractions  are  treated  and  explained  the  same  as 
whole  numbers.  Formulas  are  also  given  for  drilling  the  scholar  upon  the  Blackboard, 
Which  will  be  found  of  service  to  mahy  teachers  of  Common  Schools.  Price  50  cents. 


ALBERT  D.  WRIGHT. 

Primary  Lessons  ; 

Being  a Speller  and  Reader,  on  an  Original  Plan  ; in  which  One  Lettei 
is  taught,  at  a Lesson,  with  its  Power ; an  application  being  immediately 
made,  in  Words,  of  each  Letter  thus  Learned,  and  those  Words  being 
directly  arranged  into  Reading  Lessons.  Price  12i  cents 
16 


T>.  Appleton  & Co's  Educational  Publications. 


EDWARD  Is,  YOUMAN3. 

A Glass- Book  of  Chemistry  ; 

in  which  the  Principles  of  the  Science  are  Familiarly  Explained  an3 
Applied  to  the  Arts,  Agriculture,  Physiology,  Dietetics,  Ventilation, 
and  the  most  Important  Phenomena  of  Nature.  Designed  for  the  Uso 
of  Academies  and  Schools,  and  for  Popular  Beading.  12mo.  75  cents, 

^'No  attempt  has  been  made  to  popularize  this  important  science,  and  to  place  it  ca 
the  same  favorable  basis  with  geography  and  astronomy  ; hence,  the  idea  is  prevalent 
that  chemistry  is  one  of  those  dry  and  difficult  subjects  which  belong  exclusively  to 
professors  and  lecturers,  and  which  can  not  be  successfully  taught  as  a branch  of  com- 
mon education.  In  the  treatise  now  before  us  we  are  shown  that  the  fundamental  laws 
of  chemistry  are  as  definite,  as  clear  and  simple,  and  as  capable  of  being  understood  by 
- juvenile  minds,  as  those  of  numbers,  which  are  taught  in  every  school. 

“ We  regai-d  this  new  Class-Book  of  Chemistry  as  one  of  the  most  valuable  text 
books  that  has  been  prepared/or  schools  during  many  years.  A knowledge  of  the  sci- 
ence of  which  it  treats  is  of  great  importance  to  every  one,  and  is  daily  becoming  more 
eud  more  popular.  This  work  popularizes  to  a greater  extent  than  any  other  we  have 
ever  seen  on  this  subject,  and  renders  interesting  to  the  minds  of  pupils,  as  well  as  to  the 
general  reader,  one  of  the  most  useful  of  sciences. 

“ A peculiar  and  valuable  feature  of  this  treatise  is  its  application  of  chemistry  to  the 
common  occurrences  of  life,  and  its  treating  of  familiar  things,  and  presenting  facts  and 
truths  alike  valuable  and  entertaining,  in  a~style  free,  as  far  "as  possible,  from  technicali- 
ties on  the  one  hand,  and  puerilities  on  the  other.” — Student. 

“ An  elementary  work  on  Chemistry  well  adapted  to  either  purpose,  of  aiding  in  the 
initiatory  step  towards  a profound  study  of  the  science,  or  of  giving  that  general  know- 
ledge deemed  essential  in  ordinary  education.  No  better  illustration  could  be  given  oi 
the  progress  of  the  science  of  Chemistry  in  these  later  years  than  the  fulness  of  informa- 
tion in  this  elementary  book  on  Organic  and  Animal  Chemistry,  branches  of  the  science 
which  but  a few  years  ago  were  as  sealed  books  even  to  the  che'mical  philosophers  them- 
selves. The  book  is  clear  and  demonstrative  in  style,  and  easily  intelligible  to  the  be- 
ginner and  general  reader.” — Tribune . 


EDWARD  L.  YCUMANS. 

• A Chart  of  Chemistry  ; 

In  which  the  Fundamental  Laws  and  Facts  of  the  Science,  Affinity,  tha 
Composition  and  Decomposition  of  Bodies,  combining  Equivalents  or 
Definite  and  Multiple  Proportions,  the  Atomic  Theory,  Crystallization, 
Fermentation,  Isomerism,  the  Nomenclature  and  Formulas,  are  Illus- 
trated to  the  eye  in  a clear  and  simple  manner. 

***  This  Chart,  which  is  adapted  to  the  above  Class-Boot,  is  nearly  four  feet  by  five 
in  size,  and  contains  about  one  thousand  diagrams,  in  sixteen  different  colors.  That  It 
Easy  be  brought  within  the  reach  of  every  school,  it  is  sold  at  the  low  price  of  five  dol- 
lars being  the  cheapest  Chart,  considering  its  cost,  that  is  published  in  the  United 
States. 

The  following  distinguished  Chemists  and  Educators  have  highly  commended  this 
Chart  as  a valuable  auxiliary  to  all  Students : — 

Professors  B.  L.  Silliman,  Jas.  R.  Chilton,  John  'W.  Draper,  Jas.  B.  Rogers,  W.  0. 
Hopkins,  JolmTorrey,  "W.  H.  Ellett,  Thos.  Antisell,  Gray,  Hon.  Horace  Mann,  Supt 
McKeen,  N.  T.  City,  Supt.  S.  S.  Randall,  Albany,  Supt  T.  L.  Holme3,  Brooklyn,  Ge& 
B.  Emerson,  Boston,  &c.,  &c. 

17 


D.  Appleton  & Co.'s  HEucatiomal  Publications. 


OLLENDORFF. 

New  Method  of  Learning  to  Read , Write , and 

Speak  the  French  Language : with  an  Appendix,  containing  the  Cardinal 
and  Ordinal  Numbers,  and  full  Paradigms  of  the  Eegular  and  Irregu- 
lar, Auxiliary,  Deflective,  and  Impersonal  Verbs.  By  J.  L.  Jewett. 
One  volume  12mo.  §1. 

[ggr  A Key  to  the  Exercises,  in  a separate  volume.  75  cents. 

4,1  New  Method  of  Learning  the  French  Language. — This  Grammar  must  su- 
persede all  others  now  used  for  instruction  in  the  French  language.  Its  conception  and 
errangement  are  admirable, — the  work  evidently  of  a mind  familiar  with  the  deficiencies 
of  the  systems,  the  place  of  which  it  is  designed  to  supply.  In  all  the  works  of  the  kind 
that  have  fallen  under  our  notice,  there  has  been  so  much  left  unexplained  or  obscure, 
and  so  many  things  have  been  omitted — trifles,  perhaps,  in  the  estimation  of  the  author, 
but  the  cause  of  great  embarrassment  to  the  learner — that  they  have  been  comparatively 
valueless  as  self-instructors.  The  student,  deceived  by  their  specious  pretensions,  has 
uot  proceeded  far  before  he  has  felt  himself  in  a condition  similar  to  that  of  a mariner 
who  should  put  out  to  sea  without  a compass  to  direct  him.  He  has  encountered  diffi- 
culty after  difficulty,  to  which  his  Grammar  afforded  no  clue;  when,  disappointed  and 
discouraged,  he  has  either  abandoned  the  study  in  disgust,  or  if  his  means  permitted, 
has  resorted  to  a teacher  to  accomplish  what  it  was  not  in  his  power  to  effect  by  the  aid 
of  his  ‘ self-instructor.’ 

“Ollendorff  has  passed  his  roller  over  the  whole  field  of  French  instruction,  and  the 
rugged  inequalities  formerly  to  be  encountered,  no  longer  discourage  the  learner.  What 
were  the  difficulties  of  the  language,  are  here  mastered  in  succession ; and  the  only  sur- 
prise of  the  student,  as  he  passes  from  lesson  to  lesson,  is,  that  he  meets  none  of  these 
‘lions  in  the  way.’ 

“The  value  of  the  work  has  been  greatly  enhanced  by  a careful  revision,  and  the 
addition  of  an  appendix  containing  matter  essential  to  its  completeness  either  as  a book 
for  the  use  of  teachers  or  for  self-instruction.” — New- York  Commercial  Advertiser. 


OLLENDORFF. 

New  Method  of  Learning  to  Read,  Write , and 

Speak  the  French  Language : with  tlie  Lessons  divided  into  Sections  of 
a Proper  Length  for  Daily  Tasks,  and  numerous  Corrections,  Additions, 
and  Improvements,  suitable  for  this  country,  by  V.  Value  ; to  which  is 
added  Value’s  System  of  French  Pronunciation;  his  Grammatical  Sy- . 
nopsis ; a New  Index,  and  Short  Models  of  Commercial  Correspond- 
ence. One  volume  12mo.  Price  $1. 

HI?"  A Key  to  the  Exercises,  in  a separate  volume.  75  cents. 

“Mr.  Value  has  taught  practically  Ollendorff’s  system  for  many  years,  and  has  be- 
stowed much  thought  and  labor  on  the  improvement  of  this  edition.  The  longer  les- 
sons have  been  judiciously  subdivided ; much  attention  has  been  bestowed  upon  the 
arrangement  of  the  exercises  relating  to  the  subjunctive  mo'od : besides  the  system  of 
pronunciation,  we  have  an  excellent  grammatical  synopsis,  which  appears  to  us,  on  a 
brief  examination,  very  happily  constructed  and  of  great  value.  In  his  preface  the  au- 
thor mentions  several  minute  corrections  made  in  this  edition,  which  show  the  care  and 
accuracy  bestowed  upon  it.” — Churchman. 

“Messrs.  D.  Appleton  & Co.:— 

“ Gentlemen, 

“I  have  carefully  perused  your  new  edition  of  Ollendorff  by  Mr.  Value,  and  find 
it  contains  al)  the  improvements  the  original  work  so  much  required.  It  is  evidently 
tho  result  of  iong  research,  time,  and  labor,  founded  upon  experience  and  a thorough 
knowledge  of  the  system,  and  in  my  estimation  far  superior  to  any  work  of  the  kind 
which  I have  yet  rest  with.  I intend  adopting  the  use  of  it  in  my  classes. 

“ Yours,  respectfully, 

“J.  EOEMEE, 

“ Professor  of  the  French  Language  in  the.  JSt.  Y.  Free  Academy? 

18  ' 


D.  Anvl&ton  & Co.'s  Educational  Publications : 


OLLENDORFF 

First  Lessons  in  French  ; 

Or,  Elementary  French  Grammar,  Introductory  to  Ollendorff's  Largsi 
Grammar.  By  G.  W.  Greene.  16mo  50  cents. 

This  little  volume  is  intended  as  an  Introduction  to  1 Ollendorff's  cojipltee  French 
Method,”  and  is  published  in  accordance  with  a very  general  demand  made  for  a more 
elementary  work  than  the  larger  Grammar. 

“ It  is  believed  that  the  student  who  shall  take  the  pains  to  go  carefully  through  this 
volume,  in  the  manner  suggested  in  the  Directions  for  studying  it,  will  come  to  the  study 
Of  the  ‘ Complete  Method’ with  a degree  of  preparation  which  will  render  his  subse- 
quent progress  easy  and  agreeable.” 

“ It  seems  admirably  suited  in  all  its  part3  for  its  intended  purpose.  In  a series  of 
exercises,  combining  vocabularies  and  roles,  it  presents  an  elementary  view  }f  the 
whole  subject  of  the  French  Grammar,  teaching  and  at  the  same  time  illustrating  every 
thing  essential,  both  in  the  forms  and  in  the  syntax  of  the  language.  We  have  been 
particularly  struck  wiih  the  nice  and  exact  manner  in  which  the  rules  are  stated,  and 
the  differences  pointed  out  between  the  English  and  the  French  Idiom.  The  book  is 
particularly  designed  for  younger  scholars ; but  persons  more  advanced  will  do  well  to 
use  it  before  coining  to  the  "study  of  the  ‘ Complete  Method’  of  Ollendorff  It  is  the 
best  of  the  kind  with' which  we  are  acquainted,  and,  we  doubt  not,  will  30on  win  its 
way  to  general  adoption.” — Providence  Journal. 


PROF.  GEORGE  W.  GREENS. 

Companion  to  Ollendorff  s Neiu  Method  oj 

Learning  to  Bead,  Write,  and  Speak  the  French  Language.  12mo. 
75  cents. 

“The  present  work,  as  its  name  imports,  forms  a very  appropriate  companion  to  the 
new  edition  of  Ollendorff  by  M.  Value.  It  comprises  a series  of  ninety-two  dia- 
logues, carefully  selected,  so  as  to  familiarize  the  student  with  an  extensive  range  of  sub- 
jects, and  to  enable  him  to  converse  upon  them  with  ease  and  fluency. 

“ The  dialogues  are  followed  by  a valuable  chapter  on  differences  of  idioms,  in  which 
those  peculiarities  of  the  language  which  cannot  be  classified  under  general  rules,  are 
clearly  exhibited,  accompanied  by  grammatical  hints  and  useful  suggestions. 

“Nearly  one  half  of  the  book  is  taken  up  with  a vocabulary  of'words  arranged  ac- 
cording to  subjects,  presenting  at  a single  glance  all  the  principal  terms  relating  to  any 
particular  art,  profession,  or  branch  of  science.  Among  other  improvements,  we  notice 
the  French  names  of  all  the  principal  countries,  cities,  towns,  islands,  seas,  rivers, 
mountains,  &c.,  in  the  world — names  of  the  principal  nations  and  races  of  men,  and  the 
proper  names  of  men  and  women.  These  tables  are  indispensable  to  the  French  stu- 
dent, and  alone  are  worth  the  price  of  the  book. 

“ In  Mr.  Green’s  reputation  as  Professor  of  Modem  Languages  in  Brown  University, 
we  have  a sufficient  guaranty  of  the  accuracy  of  the  work.” — Commercial  Advertiser. 

“We  commend  this  volume  as  a Vade-mecum  to  all  students  of  the  French  tongue. 
The  dialogues  are  simple  in  construction — yet  they  embrace  a wide  range  of  subjects. 
The  idiomatic  hints  supply  a desideratum  that  has  been  long  needed  by  the  student,  as 
those  who  have  attempted  to  render  French  colloquy  according  to  grammatical  rules, 
know  too  well.  The  vocabulary  preceding  each  conversation  is  a convenience,  if  not  a 
novelty ; it  precludes  the  necessity  of  frequent  reference  to  a more  ponderous  work.” — 
Literary  Union. 


GSTERVALD'S  FRENCH  TESTAMENT. 

La  Nouveau  Testament  de  Notre  Seigneur  Jesus - 

Christi.  D’apres  la  version  revue  par  J.  F.  Ostervald.  Editic  stereo* 
type  a l’imprimerie  de  l’Universite  d’Edenbourg.  32mo. 

***  A very  neat  Edition  of  a critically  corrected  test 

19 


> 

D.  Appleton  & Co.'s  Educational  Publications. 

PROF.  SURENNE. 

The  Standard  Pronouncing  Dictionary  of  the 

French  and  English  Languages.  In  Two  Parts.  Part  I. : — French  and 
English.  Part  II. : — English  and  French.  The  First  Part  compre- 
hending words  in  common  use — Terms  connected  with  Science — Terms 
belonging  to  the  Fine  Arts — 4000  Historical  Names— 4000  Geographi- 
cal Names— 1100  Terms  lately  published,  with  the  pronunciation  os 
evert  word,  according  to  the  French  Academy  and  the  most  eminent 
Lexicographers  and  Grammarians  ; together  with  *50  Critical  Remarks, 
in  which  the  various  methods  of  pronouncing  employed  by  different 
authors  are  investigated  and  compared  with  each  other.  The  Second 
Part  containing  a copious  vocabulary  of  English  words  and  expressions, 
with  the  pronunciation  according  to  Walker.  The  whole  preceded  by 
a Practical  and  Comprehensive  System  of  French  Pronunciation.  $1  50. 

,:Tliis  work  must  have  been  one  of  very  great  labor,  as  it  is  evidently  of  deep  re- 
search. W e have  given  it  a careful  examination,  and  are  perfectly  safe  in  saying  we  hav« 
never  before  seen  any  thing  of  the  kind  at  all  to  compare  with  it.” 


PROFS.  SPIERS  AND  SURENNE. 

Complete  French  and  English  Dictionary . 

In  Two  Parts.  I.  English  and  French.  II.  French  and  English.  One 
volume  imperial  8vo.,  1400  pages.  ( Nearly  ready.) 

This  Work  has  been  newly  composed  from  the  French  Dictionaries  of  the  Academy, 
JLaveaux,  Boiste,  Bescherelle,  Landais,  &c. ; and  from  the  English  Dictionaries  of  John- 
son, Bichardson,  Walker,  and  Webster.  It  surpasses  all  others  in  correct  and  philo- 
sophical analysis  of  shades  of  meaning,  in  fulness  of  definition,  and  clearness  of  arrange- 
ment; and  contains  many  words,  particularly  such  as  are  connected  with  modem  sci- 
ence, not  to  be  found  in  any  other  work  of  the  kind.  A number  of  new  features  have 
been  introduced  by  the  American  editor;  he  has  given  the  pronunciation  of  every  word, 
French  and  English,  according  to  the  best  standards,  and  most  approved  system ; he 
has  explained  clearly,  though  briefly,  the  shades  of  meaning  which  distinguish  French 
Bvnonymes,  thus  guarding  the  scholar  against  error  in  their  use ; and  has  brought  in,  in 
alphabetical  order,  the  leading  parts  of  every  irregular  verb  in  the  language,  thereby  re- 
moving the  greatest  difficulty  which  those  beginning  the  study  of  French  have  hereto- 
fore experienced. 

Embracing  all  these  advantages,  this  work  is  believed  to  he  the  most  complete  end 
valuable  French  and  English  Dictionary  extant,  and  as  such  is  presented  to  the  publio 
la  the  confident  hope  that  it  will  meet  with  general  favor. 

PROF.  SURENNE. 

An  Abridged  Dictionary  of  the  French  and 

English  Languages.  In  Two  Parts.  I.  French — English.  II.  English 
— French.  With  Vocabulary  of  Proper  Names.  For  the  Use  of  Schools 
and  for  General  Eeference.  One  vol.  18mo.,  of  558  pages.  Price  90  cts. 

“ In  compiling  this  abridgment  of  the  larger  work,  all  the  words  have  been  retained 
except  those  which  have  become  obsolete,  or  whose  technicality  precluded  their  inser» 
lion  in  a popular  Dictionary.  At  the  same  time,  due  regard  has  been  paid  to  the  intro, 
taction  of  such  new  words  and  definitions  as  the  progressive  changes  in  the  language 
have  rendered  necessary ; and  for  this  purpose  the  best  and  most  recent  authorities 
have  been  anxiously  consulted.  It  is,  therefore,  confidently  anticipated  that  the  volume 
will  pmve  not  only  a useful  auxiliary  to  the  student,  but  also  a convenient  Pocket  Com 
paalon  to  the  traveller  wherever  the  French  language  is  spoken.”*-P/'s/oc«. 

SO 


D.  Appleton  & Co.'s  Educational  Publications. 


PROP.  RCBMSR. 

Elementary  French  Reader : 

"With  an  Analytical  Study  of  the  French  Language,  & Treatise  on  French 
Poetry,  and  a Dictionary  of  Idioms,  Peculiar  Expressions,  &e.  §1. 

M "We  invite  attention  to  this  new  French  Kcader,  which  seems  admirably  adapted  ts 
the  use  of  the  student,  and  especially  to  the  code  of  instructions  and  explanations  with 
which  it  is  introduced ; the  whole  forming,  as  we  conceive,  a book  of  exceeding  valae  to 
both  learners  and  teachers,  and  capable  of  greatly  facilitating  the  labors  of  both.  Thd 
preliminary  treatise  on  the  analytical  relations  of  the  English  and  French  languages  ap* 
jiears  to  us  especially  valuable;  as  does  also  that  on  the'rules  of  French  versification; 
and  both  have  the  merit  of  being  quite  new,  at  least  to  English  students.” — Commercial 
Advertiser. 

“The  author  has  accomplished  the  task  with  great  ability.  His  Treatises  on  the 
Analytical  Study  of  the  French  Language,  and  on  the  Buies  of  French  Versification, 
evince  a true  philological  tact,  and  the  selections  which  compose  the  body  of  the  work 
are  made  with  excellent  discrimination,  from  the  most  agreeable  specimens  of  French 
literature.  We  are  persuaded  that  this  volume  may  be  of  eminent  service  in  the  acqui- 
sition of  the  French  language,  and  that  It  may  also  be  consulted  with  great  advantage  by 
the  mature  student.  Without  reference  to  its  value  as  a manual,  it  is,  in  fact,  a tasteful 
collection  of  ‘elegant  extracts.’  ” — New-York.  Tribmie. 

“ We  think  this  book  is  a highly  valuable  addition  to  the  publications  of  Ollendorff, 
end  particularly  in  what  the  latter  need — a good  Beading  Book.  It  is  prepared  with 
tact,  and  is  the  result,  likewise,  of  practical  experience.  The  introductory  chapters  on 
the  history,  and  Greek,  Latin,  and  English  ar-^ogies  of  the  language,  are  suggestive,  Gad 
of  sound  practical  use  in  the  hands  of  a good  father.” — Literary  'World, 


PROP.  ROSMSR. 

Second  French  Reader : 

Illustrated  with  Historical,  Geographical,  Philosophical,  and  Philological 
Notices.  Piice  $1. 

“We  noticed,  some  months  ago,  the  first  French  Header,  compiled  by  Prof.  Eoemep, 
which  work  has  been  found  eminently  useful  in  most  of  our  public  and  private  institu- 
tions, and  met  with  an  unprecedented  success.  The  one  at  the  head  of  this  article  is  a 
sequel  to  the  above-named,  and  more  particularly  a compilation,  exclusively,  from  the 
works  of  the  best  French  authors  of  the  present  age.  The  plan  on  which  this  volume 
has  been  constructed  is  a novel  and  very  judicious  one,  forming  ‘an  uninterrupted  series 
of  articles,  each  one  of  which  is  either  suggested  by  the  preceding  or  relates  to  it.’  It  is, 
we  can  conscientiously  state,  a collection  of  the  most  interesting  articles  we  have  ever 
met  with,  combining  at  once  instruction  and  amusement,  which  renders  it  a book  for  the 
etudy,  as  well  as  the  drawing-room,  from  which  a vast  amount  of  elegant  information 
may  be  gathered 

“ Our  readers,  who  wish  to  become  acquainted  with  the  productions  of  the  most 
eminent  modern  French  writers,  will  peruse  it  with  unwearying  attention,  for  the 
articles  have  been  selected  with  a taste  and  judgment  rarely  to  be  met  with  in 
works  of  this  description.  Many  of  them  are  perfect  gems,  and  replete  with  deep  inter- 
est. In  such  a collection,  it  would  he  almost  invidious  to  point  out  any  particular  on$ 
«-they  are  all  excellent — all  models  of  style  and  elegance  of  language.” 

“ When  Mr.  Eoemer  published  his  ‘first  French  Eeader,’  we  were  constrained  to 
commend  it  very  cordially.  This  ‘ Second  French  Eeader’  is  constructed  upon  the  samo 
system,  and  is  executed  with  equal  skilL  The  first  was  designed  to  teach  the  pupil  to 
read  and  translate ; the  second  aims  familiarzing  him  with  the  best  French  authors, 
and  thus  to  give  finish  to  his  acquirements.  The  great  advantage  of  Mr.  Eoemer’s 
present  volume,  over  any  similar  work  with  which  we  are  familiar,  is  that  the  selections 
are  all  from  modern  authors,  of  acknowledged  purity  and  elegance  of  style,  the  compiler 
justly  remarking  that  ‘ the  language  of  Corneille  and  Moli6re  would  at  this  day  cause  aJ 
much  amazement  in  Paris  as  that  t>f  Shakspeara  v Milton  in  New-Ycrk.’  '’‘-“CorrvfMr* 
oiai  Advertiser. 

2i 


D.  Appleton  & Co.' a Educational  Publications. 


PROP.  A.  G.  CGIiLOT. 

Chefs-D 7 Oeuvres  Dramatiques  cle  la  Language 

Francais.  Mis  en  Ordre  Progressif,  et  Annotes,  pour  en  faciliter  L’ln- 
telligence.  One  volume  12mo.  $1. 

“We  have  examined  this  hook  with  great  interest,  and  can  confidently  recommend 
il  to  students  and  teachers  of  the  French  language,  as  better  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  a 
reading  book  than  any  other  with  which  we  are'acquainted.  It  is  made  up  or  fourteen 
complete  dramas,  taken  from  the  works  of  the  best  and  purest  writers;  among  which 
are  the  great  names  of  Corneille,  Racine,  Moliere,  and  Piron.  The  pieces  are  systematic 
oally  arranged  in  progressive  order,  and  the  idiomatical  difficulties  of  the  language  are 
fnlly  and  clearly  explained  in  the  notes.  To  those  who  are  desirous  of  speaking  French 
tins  book  is  invaluable,  as  the  conversational  and  idiomatic  phrases,  so  indisptaisab.'e  to 
this  accomplishment,  are  met  with  on  every  page ; and  to  those  who  wish  to  cultivate 
their  taste,  and  to  obtain  a knowledge,  not  only  of  the  French  language,  but  of  the  writ- 
ings of  its  most  eminent  dramatists,  this  volume  will  supply  the  place  of  voluminous  col- 
lections not  easily  to  be  obtained.  Its  typographical  accuracy  and  appearanco  has  sel- 
dom been  equalled  in  any  French  book  that  has  heretofore  issued  from  the  press  of  this 
country.” — Courier  & Enquirer. 

“ This  book  is  made  up  of  pieces  of  progressive  difficulty,  as  exercises  in  the  study  of 
French.  We  have  first  a Proverb  or  two  in  the  simplest  style,  with  foot-notes  explana- 
tory of  idiomatic  phrases ; then  a couple  of  Berquin’s  pieces,  intended  for  learners ; then 
some  half  dozen  of  Scribe’s  popular  dramas,  full  of  action,  and  exhibiting  many  peculiar- 
ities of  French  manners  and  language,  Moliere’s  Misanthrope;  Voltaire’s  Merope;  Ra- 
cine’s Athalie ; and,  lastly,  the  Cinna  of  Corneille — all  entire ; which  is,  certainly,  an 
improvement  on  the  other  French  reading  books,  the  fragmentary  stylo  of  which  has 
often  vexed  us.  The  whole  appears  to  us  admirably  adapted  for  its  purpose.” — Chris- 
tian Examiner. 


PROP.  P.  ROWAN1. 

Morceaux  Choisies  Des  Auteurs  Modernes. 

A la  Usage  de  la  Jeunesse.  With  a Vocabulary  of  the  New  and  Diffi- 
cult Words  and  Idiomatic  Phrases  adopted  in  Modern  French  Litera- 
ture. Edited  by  J.  L.  Jewett.  Editor  of  Ollendorff’s  French  Method, 
One  volume  12mo.  75  cents. 

“ This  is  a new  French  Reading  Book,  sel  ected  from  the  works  of  the  ablest  and  most 
elegant  French  writers  of  the  present  day.  L t supplies  a want  that  has  long  been  felt  by 
those  who  are  sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  French  to  he'aware  of  the  great  revolution 
that  has  taken  place  in  its  idiomatic  structure  within  the  present  century,  and  of  the  in- 
adequacy of  the  compilations  from  the  older  cl  assies,  to  enable  a student  to  read  freely 
tho  best  productions  that  are  now  issued  from  the  press. 

“ Much  time  and  labor,  and  the  expense  of  many  volumes,  will  he  saved  to  the  stu- 
dent  by  this  moderate-sized  duodecimo ; and  if  a more  interesting  reading-book  is  to  bo 
found  in  any  language,  we  are  willing  to  confess,  after  reading  the  present  work  with 
constantly  increasing  pleasure,  that  we  have  yet  to  make  its  acquaintance.  J udicious  and 
appropriate  selections  from  the  writings  of  such  men  as  Sismondi,  Guizot,  Thierry,  Mich- 
elet, Thiers,  D’Aubigne,  Dumas,  Janin,  Victor  Hugo,  Lamartine,  Soulie,  and  others  of 
not  inferior  merit,  need  no  commendation  to  those  who  take  any  interest  in  French 
literature.” — Evening  Poet. 

22 


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tlie  Spanish. 

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The  pronunciation  of  the  Castilian  language  ia  bo  clearly  set  forth  in  this  Dictionary  as  to  reDder  it  well- 
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AN  Abridgment  of  the  above  nearly  ready . 

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